Table 11.

Animal models of NiV

Animal species	Animal model	Strains	Max. Dose	Route	Lethality	Signs of disease	Strengths/Weaknesses	References
Mouse	C57BL/6 mice	UMMC1	105 PFU	IP	0	No	Challenge route dependent lethality/Inability to mimic natural infection routes	651
				IC	100%	–
	IFNAR-KO mice		106 PFU	IP	100%	Weight loss, agitation, impatience, dyskinesia, head tilt, paralysis, vasculitis, meningitis, bronchial interstitial pneumonia	Lethal encephalitis similarly to human infections/Inability to mimic natural infection routes
				IC	100%
				IN	60%	Neuronal signs, breath difficulties
	MyD88/TRIF/MAVS/STING KO mice	Malaysia	106 PFU	IP	100%	Posture, prostration, and paralysis	Applicable to the study of pathogenesis and immune correlates/In applicable to extensive usage	652
	MyD88/MAVS-KO mice				66%	Posture, prostration, and paralysis		653
	Human Lung Xenograft	Malaysia	105 TCID50	Intragraft injection	0	No	Facilitate study of pathogenesis and virus-host interactions/No obvious signs of disease	654
Hamster	Syrian hamsters	Malaysia/Bangladesh	107 PFU	IP/IN	100%	Hyperreflexia, ataxia, irregular breathing	Suitable animal model for acute NiV infection/Differential time to death in different challenge routes and no parenchymal fibrinoid necrosis in the lungs	910
		Malaysia	6 × 105 PFU	IN	100%	Imbalance, paralysis of limbs, lethargy, muscle twitching and respiratory distress
		Cambodian	13500 PFU	SC	100%	Paralysis, limb tremors, respiratory distress, unsteady gait; weight loss, hypothermia		660
Guinea pig	Guinea pig	Malaysia	107 PFU	IP	0	Brief fever and weight loss but recovered.	Reproductive infection model/Variable clinical symptoms between different NiV isolates and routes	659
			6 × 104 PFU	IP	100%	Vascular necrosis and inflammation, bladder and female reproductive tract infections evident		660
Ferret	Ferret	Malaysia	5 × 104 TCID50	IN	100%	Fever, depression, lethargy, loss of appetite, difficulty breathing	Ability to exhibit complex behaviors for clinical assessment/-	662,674,681
Pig	Pig	Malaysia	5 × 103 TCID50	SC	66%	Fever, unconsciousness, coughing, and ataxia	Marked respiratory and neurological features, age-associate lethality/Ununiform lethality	663,928
				IN/OR	0–31%	No
Dog	Dog	Malaysia	5 × 103 TCID50	SC/OR	0–100%	Fever, respiratory distress, nasal discharge and conjunctivitis	Similar pathological changes to those in human patients/In applicable to study dissemination mechanisms	664
Cat	Cat	Malaysia			50–100%	Fever, increased respiratory rate, inappetence, depression	High susceptibility to NiV/In applicable to study dissemination mechanisms	665,666,929
Nonhuman primates	African green monkey	Malaysia	1.3 × 106 PFU	IT/IN/Aerosol	100%	Fever, anorexia, respiratory disease, lethargy, rash, depression, behavioral changes, vasculitis, hemorrhage, edema, thrombocytopenia, meningitis	Mimic serious clinical diseases in humans/inaccessibility and ethical issues	667,668,930
		Bangladesh	5 × 105 PFU	IT/IN/Aerosol	100%			668,669,671
	Squirrel Monkey	Malaysia	107 PFU	IN	0	Anorexia, weight loss, depression, respiratory disease, uncoordinated motor movements, acute neurologic illness		673
				IV	75%
	Cynomolgus Monkeys	Bangladesh/Malaysia	5× 105 PFU	IT/IN	0	Self-limiting/asymptomatic	Study of the immune response and organism after infection/mild or asymptomatic infection	672

IN intranasal, IP intraperitoneal, IC intracerebral, SC subcutaneous, IT intratracheal, IV intravenous, NiV Nipah virus, PFUs plaque-forming units, TCID₅₀ median tissue culture infective dose, MyD88 myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), TRIF TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-b, MAVS mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein, STING stimulator of interferon genes, – not applicable