Table 3.

Biomarkers of diabetic neuropathy in children and adolescents with T1DM.

Study Design	Study Population	Biomarkers Classification	Biomarkers and Outcomes	Ref.
Cross-sectional study	Total sample = 60 Children with DNU = 30 Healthy children = 30 Age = ≤18 years	Inflammation	Children with DNU had higher serum neopterin levels than healthy counterparts (53.5 vs. 17 nmol/L)	[59]
Cross-sectional study	Total sample = 79 adolescents with DNU = 56 (large fiber neuropathy, small fiber neuropathy, autonomic neuropathy, gastrointestinal/enteric neuropathy) Healthy adolescents = 23 Age = 15–18 years	Inflammation	Serum levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR), TNF-α, and IL-10 were higher in adolescents with T1DM than those without (IFN-γ: T1DM = 5.5 pg/mL, healthy adolescents = 4.2 pg/mL; suPAR: T1DM = 2.5 μg/L, healthy adolescents = 2.1 μg/L; TNF-α: T1DM = 0.8 pg/mL, healthy adolescents = 0.6 pg/mL; IL-10: T1DM = 0.4 pg/mL, healthy adolescents = 0.3 pg/mL) Adolescents with large fiber neuropathy had higher serum levels of TNF-α than other different types of neuropathies (large fiber neuropathy = 0.90 pg/mL, small fiber neuropathy = 0.77 pg/mL, autonomic neuropathy = 0.85 pg/mL, gastrointestinal/enteric neuropathy = 0.84 pg/mL)	[60]
Cross-sectional study	Total sample = 140 children with T1DM Age = 17 years	MicroRNAs	Polymorphisms in MIR128A and MIR146A genes are associated with early signs of DNU	[61]
Cross-sectional study	Total sample = 204 T1DM children = 114 Healthy children = 90 Age = ~16 years	Genetic	DNU was associated with polymorphism rs4673 in the CYBA gene in T1DM children only	[62]