Table 4.

Biomarkers of combined diabetic complications in children and adolescents with T1DM.

Study Design	Study Population	Biomarkers Classification	Biomarkers and Outcomes	Ref.
Case–control study	Total sample = 135 T1DM cases = 116 (DNE = 11; DR = 8; DNE and DR = 26; without microangiopathy = 71) Healthy controls = 19 Age = ~13 years	Inflammation	Children with microangiopathy demonstrated higher serum levels of TGF-β1 compared to those without and healthy controls	[63]
Case–control study	Total sample = 72 T1DM cases = 50 (with DNE, DR, and/or DNU = 30; without microangiopathy = 20) Healthy controls = 22 Age = ~17 years	OS	Children with microangiopathy showed higher levels of MPO and NT-proBNP compared to those without and healthy controls	[64]
Case–control study	Total sample = 90 T1DM cases = 60 (with DNE, DR, and DNU = 30; without microangiopathy = 30) Healthy controls = 30 Age = ~14 years	Anti-angiogenesis	Higher serum kallistatin levels were detected in microvascular complications group than other groups (with microvascular complications = 9.9 ng/mL; without microvascular complications = 5.0 ng/mL; healthy controls = 1.3 ng/mL)	[65]
Case–control study	Total sample = 84 Children with microangiopathy (DNE, DR, and DNU) = 26 Children without microangiopathy = 58 Age = 9–18 years	Others	Children with DNE had higher serum AGE levels than those with DNU, DR, and healthy children	[66]