Table 1.
Health effects of coffee/caffeine.
| Health condition | Reference | Main conclusion |
|---|---|---|
| Health benefits | ||
| Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease | Wierzejska (2017)[9] Ascherio et al (2001)[10] Quintana et al (2007)[11] Xu et al (2015)[12] |
Inverse relationship was found in many original studies and reviews between coffee consumption and Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease. The evidence appears to be weak, however, and dose-dependent (specified as moderate by some studies). |
| Stroke | Van Dam et al (2020)[13] | Many prospective studies and reviews, and meta-analyses have reported a weak inverse association between moderate consumption of coffee and risk of stroke. |
| Cognitive Performance. | Van Dam et al (2020)[13] Nehlig (2010), Nehlig et al (1992)[5,14] |
Caffeine reduce fatigue, increase alertness, and reduces reaction time, enhances cognitive functions, and uplifts mood perhaps by its antagonizing effect to adenosine. |
| Diabetes T2D | O’Keefe et al (2018)[2] | In some long-term studies coffee reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes. |
| Obesity | O’Keefe et al (2018); Sirotkin & Kolesarova (2021)[2,15] | Regular coffee consumption may mitigate the potential for obesity in individuals with a genetic predisposition to the condition. |
| cardiovascular mortality | Poole et al (2017b)[16] | The risk of coronary artery disease, and death from cardiovascular causes are found to have an inverse relationship with coffee consumption, with the consumption of 3 to 5 cups per day associated with the lowest risk. |
| Cancer and liver diseases | Poole et al (2017b)[16] | Consumption of coffee is associated with a lower risk of several types of cancer and neurological, metabolic, and liver cancer and cirrhosis associated with coffee consumption. |
| Depression | Jee et al (2020)[17] | Dose-dependent: moderate caffeine intake has a positive effect on depression. , while excessive caffeine intake can exacerbate depression. |
| All-cause mortality | O’Keefe et al (2018); Poole et al (2017b)[2,16] | A dose-dependent reductions (to 400 mg/day) in all-cause mortality in a number of studies. |
| As a drug: Pain relief | Van Dam et al (2020)[13] | Caffeine synergizes with analgesics for better relief of pain. |
| As a drug: apnea of prematurity | Skouroliakou et al (2009)[18] | The use of caffeine might carry an advantage over theophylline for premature infants. |
| Health risks | ||
| All-cause mortality | Liu et al (2013)[19] | Excessive coffee consumption (more than 28 cups/week) has positive association with all-cause mortality in men and in men and women younger than 55 years. |
| Pregnancy and childbirth | Poole et al (2017b)[16] | High consumption of coffee versus low/no consumption is associated with low birth weight and pregnancy loss. |
| Fracture in women | Poole et al (2017b)[16] | There was also an association between coffee drinking and risk of fracture in women but not in men. |
| Blood pressure (BP) | O’Keefe et al (2018)[2] | Coffee can increase in blood pressure acutely and modestly (BP) among caffeine-naive individuals but effects on habitual coffee drinkers is insignificant. |
| Neoplasms | Poole et al (2017b)[16] | High consumption of coffee associated with urinary tract and lung cancer, and acute leukemia in childhood. |
| Stroke | Jee et al (2020)[17] | The risk of ischemic stroke onset doubles transiently in an hour following coffee consumption among infrequent drinkers (less than a cup per day). |
| Depression | Jee et al (2020)[17] | Excessive caffeine intake can exacerbate depression. |