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. 2024 Jul 22;201(2):159–173. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfae095

Table 1.

Toxicity of flavored and sweetened WPT smoke in animal studies.

Species/strain Exposure type Duration Puff profile WPT flavor (brand) Toxicity (target organs)
Balb/c mice Whole body

  • 6 wks

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Airway inflammation (Khabour et al. 2018).
Balb/c mice Whole body

  • 7 d

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Increased inflammation responses and oxidative stress in lungs (Khabour et al. 2012).
Balb/C mice Nose only 1 mo b

  • Plain and apple

  • (Al Fakher)

 Increased the risk of thrombogenicity, and heart inflammatory response (Nemmar et al. 2019).
Balb/c mice—male Whole body

  • 2 or 8 wks

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two red apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Increased oxidative stress and levels of MMP1, 3, and 9 in heart (Rababa’h et al. 2019).
C57BL/6 mice Whole body

  • 7 d

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Double apple

  • (Nakhla)

 Increased the risk of thrombosis (Alarabi et al. 2020).
C57BL/6 mice Whole body

  • 2 mo

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Double apple

  • (Nakhla)

 Lung inflammation, DNA damage noticed in lung, kidney, liver, and bone marrow (Abi-Gerges et al. 2020).
C57BL/6 mice Nose only

  • 1 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Apple

  • (Al Fakher)

 Inflammation and DNA damage were noticed in the lungs after WPT smoke exposure (Nemmar et al. 2019)
C57BL/6 mice Nose only

  • 3 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Apple

  • (Al-Fakher)

 Increased the risk of thrombosis, oxidative stress, and DNA damage in heart (Nemmar et al. 2022).
C57BL/6 mice Nose only

  • 1 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Plain, apple, and strawberry

  • (Al Fakher)

 Increased lung inflammation, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and asthmatic risk (Nemmar et al. 2020a).
C57BL/6 mice Nose only

  • 6 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 Increased DNA damage, oxidative stress, and the risk of interstitial fibrosis in heart (Nemmar et al. 2017).
Wister rats Whole body

  • 4 wks

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakleh)

 Oxidative stress was elevated in brain; induced short- or long-term memory loss (Alzoubi et al. 2015).
Wistar rats Whole body

  • 19 wks

  • (360 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Blood pressure and fasting glucose level were increased after WPT smoke exposure (Al-Sawalha et al. 2020).
Wistar rats—male Whole body

  • 4 wks

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Double apples

  • (Nakhla)

 WPT smoke exposure caused memory loss (Alzoubi et al. 2019).
Balb/c mice Nose only

  • 5 d

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 Increased inflammation in heart and risk of thrombus (Nemmar et al. 2015b).
Balb/c mice Nose only

  • 1 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 Lung inflammation and oxidative stress were noticed after WPT smoke exposure (Nemmar et al. 2013).
BALB/C mice Nose only

  • 1 or 4 wks

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 Inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage were noticed in kidney (Nemmar et al. 2020c).
Balb/c mice Nose only

  • 5 d

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 WPT smoke-induced inflammation and oxidative stress were noticed in lung (Nemmar et al. 2015a).
Balb/c mice Nose only

  • 1 mo

  • (30 puffs/d)

 b

  • Honey

  • (Al Fakher)

 Induced lower levels of antioxidant, testosterone, and luteinizing hormone in plasma (Ali et al. 2015).
C57BL/6 mice—female Nose only

  • 6 mo

  • (180 puffs/d)

 a

  • Blue mint and exotic Pirate’s Cave

  • (Starbuzz)

 Lymphocyte activity was inhibited by WPT smoke (Reyes-Caballero et al. 2020).
Gprc5a or Lcn2 KO mice Whole body

  • Days 4–21 of lactation

  • (171 puffs/d)

 a

  • Double apple

  • (Nakhla)

 Increased the risk of lung tumor development (Hassane et al. 2022).
Wistar rats Whole body

  • Days 4–21 of lactation

  • (360 puffs/d)

 a

  • Double apple

  • (Nakhla)

 Dysregulated the male hormonal levels and increased oxidative stress in testes (Al-Sawalha et al. 2021).
Balb/c mice Whole body

  • Prenatal exposure

  • (360 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Increased lung inflammation and oxidative stress, and the allergic risk in offspring (Al-Sawalha et al. 2017).
Wistar rats Whole body

  • Prenatal exposure

  • (360 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Either short- or long-term memory were affected. Catalase level in brain was increased in late gestation and whole gestation WPT smoke exposure (Al-Sawalha et al. 2018).
Wister rats Whole body

  • Prenatal exposure

  • (360 puffs/d)

 a

  • Two apples

  • (Nakhla)

 Lower body weight and survival rate in offspring (Al-Sawalha et al. 2018).
a

2.6/3s puff duration with 17 s interval.

b

2s puff duration with 58 s interval.