Table 3.

Key ethical, technical, and biological challenges of stem cell therapy.

Stem Cell Types	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
ESCs	Programed to differentiate neural cells without epigenetic interference High proliferation rate	Ethnical issues—destruction of human embryos Tumorigenicity potential Immune rejection	[23,179,181,196,197,198,199]
iPSCs	iPSCs can be derived from any adult tissue without the need for embryos iPSCs can be generated from a patient’s own cells, reducing the risk of immune rejection Highly versatile based on their potential to differentiate onto any cell type	Preprogrammed epigenetics could interfere with differentiated neural phenotype Tumorigenicity potential Issues with efficient reprogramming and stability of iPSCs	[181,184,200,201,202,203,204]
MSCs	Modulate the anti-inflammatory response Low immunogenicity, less rejection Neuroprotective properties Mitochondria transfer Relatively easy large-scale production	Can create a microenvironment that supports tumor cell proliferation and metastasis Limited differentiation capacity (e.g., to neurons) In vitro senescence during expansion with potential deleterious effects Heterogenous population affecting consistency and predictability of potential outcomes	[26,54,55,187,191,193,205,206,207,208,209,210]