Table 3.

Summary of mitochondrial-targeted therapies for systemic lupus erythematosus.

Therapy	Mechanism of Action	Demonstrated Effects
Sirolimus (Rapamycin)	m-TOR suppression, reducing T-lymphocyte function	Improved mitochondrial function; decreased protein levels in urine; enhanced renal function; reduced anti-ds-DNA antibody titers
N-acetylcysteine (NAC)	GSH precursor; anti-oxidant and ROS removal; m-TORC-1 suppression	Reduced anti-double stranded DNA antibody levels; alleviated SLE nephritis symptoms; decreased lupus activity
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)	Anti-oxidant; neutralizes free radicals; facilitates electron transport	Decreased mitochondrial ROS production; reduced NETs activation and interferon alpha generation; improved immune response
Metformin	Normalizes redox balance; AMPK–m-TOR–STAT-3 pathway modulation	Decreased ROS generation; reduced mitochondrial DNA leakage; ameliorated SLE conditions; lowered corticosteroid dependence
Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ)	Targets mitochondrial anti-oxidant systems; immunomodulator	Decreased proliferation of T-helper cells; inhibited proinflammatory cytokines; potentially improved SLE symptoms
3PEHPC	Suppresses Rab-protein geranylgeranyltransferase	Improved mitochondrial dynamics; decreased anti-nuclear antibody production; alleviated nephritis symptoms
Pioglitazone	Binds to mitochondrial electron transport chain complex	Inhibited autoimmune response; improved nephritis symptoms; promoted T-reg activity
Piceid	Suppresses ROS-mediated NET formation	Alleviated SLE symptoms in murine models
Nestin	Modulates mitochondrial autophagy and oxidative stress	Protects podocytes from injury; potentially alleviates symptoms associated with SLE nephritis