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. 2024 Sep 22;12(9):1926. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12091926

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Mechanisms of HCV-induced extrahepatic carcinogenesis. HCV: hepatitis C virus. ROS: Reactive oxygen species. NF-κB: Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells. MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase. TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-β. PI3K/AKT: phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/v-Akt Murine Thymoma Viral Oncogene. JAK/STAT: Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription. Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2. IGF-1: Insulin-like Growth Factor 1. pRb: Retinoblastoma protein. DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid. p53: Tumor protein p53.