Table 1.

Modulation of adipokines in MS in relation to physical exercise.

Adipocytokine	Study Population	Main Findings	Reference
Adiponectin	Case report: a 39-year-old RRMS patient	Total serum adiponectin and HMW oligomers were reduced after 4 months of training at moderate intensity (65% heart rate reserve); in addition, a reduction in BMI (−0.9%) and FAT (−2.6%) and an improvement in the disability level were also demonstrated	[12]
	40 MS women randomized divided into either a non-exercising control or training group	Blood adiponectin levels considerably increased in the training group (8 weeks of aerobic interval training). In addition, the aerobic interval training was associated with improvements in fatigue, quality of life, and maximal oxygen consumption	[79]
	30 MS women and 15 healthy controls	Adiponectin showed no significant difference between non-exercising and training group (a single bout of aerobic exercise at 60–70% maximal heart rate)	[80]
Leptin	30 MS women and 15 healthy controls	Participants performed a single bout of aerobic exercise at 60–70% maximal heart rate. Immediately following exercise, leptin levels significantly decreased in MS subjects	[80]
	34 MS patients with mild to moderate disability randomly divided into a training group (n = 17) and a control group (n = 17)	Non-significantly changed the serum levels of leptin, ghrelin, ghrelin/leptin ratio, testosterone, and testosterone/leptin ratio between no exercise and training subjects (low-intensity exercise three times a week for 10 weeks)	[108]
TNFα	40 MS women randomized into either a non-exercising control or training group.	TNFα levels significantly decreased subsequent to the aerobic interval training (8 weeks of aerobic interval training)	[79]
	30 MS women and 15 healthy controls	TNFα levels were significantly decreased immediately after exercise (a single bout of aerobic exercise at 60–70% maximal heart rate)	[80]
	8 MS patients with low disability	Decrease in fatigue at the end of physical activity intervention (12-week series of combining Pilates and aerobic exercises) accompanied by a significant reduction in TNFα	[123]
	A randomized controlled clinical trial in 60 MS patients	In response to cardiopulmonary exercise test (30 min training at 60% of VO2max), TNFα levels stayed unchanged.	[124]
	15 MS women and 10 healthy women.	Blood samples were taken at baseline. TNFα remained unchanged immediately after exercise and two hours after exercise [15 min treadmill (~50% VO2 peak)]	[125]
	67 MS patients	Decrease in the production of TNFα at the end of the exercise program (12-week combined exercise)	[126]
	11 MS and 11 non-MS control subjects (8 women and 3 men in both groups)	TNFα increased in MS compared with controls after exercise (30 min of cycle ergometry at 60% of peak O(2) uptake, 3 day/wk for 8 wk at weeks)	[127]
	10 MS female patients	Participants completed 8-week program of twice-weekly progressive resistance training. After training, TNFα showed non-significant reductions	[128]
	35 MS people treated with interferon (IFN)-β	No changes were observed in TNFα levels after a 24-week progressive resistance training respect to a control group	[129]
	15 MS patients and 13 in control group. Twenty healthy controls	TNFα levels were slightly inducible in MS patients completing an eight-week aerobic training program	[130]
	20 subjects (n = 10 MS patients and n = 10 controls)	Serum concentration of the TNFα decreased significantly after a single bout and 6 weeks of aerobic exercise training in the intervention group	[131]