Table 4.

Summary of coffee consumption and drug interactions.

Design	Treatment	Medication Interaction	Mechanism	References
In vivo mice	Coffee	Aspirin absorption ↑	Proteobacteria, Helicobacteraceae, and Bacteroidaceae ↓; Lactobacillaceae ↑	Kim et al. 2022 [95]
In vivo human	Coffee	Paracetamol Absorption ↑	Competitive binding to adenosine receptors	Iqbal 1995 [101]
In vivo human	Coffee	Clozapine, Lithium, Theophylline, Warfarin Absorption ↓	Activation of CYP enzymes by metabolites *	Belayneh et al. 2020 [96]
In vitro mice	Coffee	Amoxicillin	Slowed growth of Burkholderiaceae	Diamond et al. 2021 [29]
In vivo mice	Cholinergic acid	Geniposide absorption ↑	Protect gut barrier function	Peng et al. 2018 [100]

Notes: * Gut microbiota, such as Clostridium butyricum, that promote butyrate production can enhance CYP3A activity. ↑: Increased. ↓: Decreased.