Table 5.
The results of DIF analysis based on lasso coefficients in the GPCMlasso model for variables in the ABC.
| Item | Content | Gender | Age group | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant | Kindergarten | Primary | Junior high | |||
| Item 1 | Whirls self for long periods of time. | 0 | −0.337 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 2 | Leans a simple task but “forgets” quickly. | 0 | 0 | −0.018 | −0.318 | 0 |
| Item 4 | Does not follow simple commands (sit down, come here, and stand up) given once. | 0 | −0.957 | 0 | 0.18 | 0 |
| Item 5 | Does not use toys appropriately (spins wheels, etc.). | 0 | 0 | 0.313 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 6 | Poor use of visual discrimination when learning (fixates on parts of objects such as size, color, and position). | 0 | −0.058 | 0 | 0.192 | 0 |
| Item 7 | Lacks a social smile (may smile out-of-context). | 0 | 0.045 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 8 | Exhibits pronoun reversal (you for I, etc.). | 0 | 0.968 | −0.137 | −0.082 | 0 |
| Item 11 | Speech is atonal and arrhythmic. | 0 | 0.926 | 0 | −0.019 | 0 |
| Item 15 | Does not respond to own name when called out among two or more other names. | 0 | −0.478 | 0 | 0.185 | 0 |
| Item 16 | Lunges and darts about, interrupted by spinning, toe walking, hand flapping, etc. | 0 | 0 | 0.15 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 17 | Not responsive to other people's facial expressions or feelings. | 0 | −0.05 | 0.108 | 0.059 | 0 |
| Item 18 | Seldom uses “yes” or “I”. | 0 | −0.867 | 0 | 0.107 | 0 |
| Item 19 | Having special abilities in one area seems to rule out intellectual disability. | 0 | 0.929 | 0 | −0.015 | 0 |
| Item 20 | Does not follow simple prepositional commands (e.g., “put the ball in the box”). | 0 | −0.786 | 0 | 0.026 | 0 |
| Item 24 | Actively avoids eye contact. | 0 | 0.374 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 25 | Resists being touched or held. | 0.022 | −0.199 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 26 | Sometimes, painful stimuli (cuts, injections, and bruises) evoke no reaction. | 0 | 0 | 0 | −0.013 | 0 |
| Item 29 | Gets desired objects by gesturing. | 0 | −1.321 | 0 | 0.175 | 0 |
| Item 30 | Walks on toes | 0 | −0.089 | 0.117 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 31 | Hurts others by biting, hitting, kicking … | −0.087 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 32 | Repeats phrases repeatedly. | 0 | 1.066 | 0 | −0.134 | −0.034 |
| Item 33 | Does not imitate other children at play. | 0 | 0 | 0.123 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 36 | Does not wait for needs to be met (wants things immediately). | 0 | −0.357 | 0 | 0.066 | 0 |
| Item 37 | Cannot point to more than five named objects. | 0 | −1.201 | 0 | 0.177 | 0.032 |
| Item 39 | Covers ears at many sounds. | 0 | 0.12 | 0 | −0.252 | 0 |
| Item 41 | Difficulties with toilet training. | 0 | −0.807 | 0 | 0.163 | 0 |
| Item 42 | Uses 5 or fewer words per day spontaneously to communicate wants or needs. | 0 | −0.291 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 43 | Often frightened or very anxious. | 0 | 0.15 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 44 | Squints, frowns, or covers eyes when in the presence of natural light. | 0 | 0.302 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 45 | Does not dress self without frequent help. | 0 | 0.166 | −1.262 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 46 | Repeats sounds or words repeatedly. | 0 | 0.212 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 48 | Echoes questions or statements made by other people. | 0 | 0 | −1.002 | −0.613 | 0 |
| Item 49 | Frequently unaware of surroundings and may be oblivious to dangerous situations. | 0 | 0 | 0.126 | 0.101 | 0 |
| Item 53 | Gets involved in complicated “rituals” such as lining things up. | 0 | 0 | −0.143 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 54 | Is very destructive (toys and household items are quickly broken). | −0.021 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 55 | A developmental delay was identified at or before 30 months of age. | 0 | −1.15 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 56 | Uses at least 15 but less than 30 spontaneous phrases daily to communicate. | 0 | −0.687 | −0.221 | 0 | 0 |
| Item 57 | Stares into space for long periods of time. | 0 | 0.142 | 0 | −0.161 | 0 |
Non-zero numbers under the group variable represent uniform DIF between subgroups.
DIF, differential item functioning.