Table 3. Features of cancer development post-COVID-19.

IL-6: interleukin-6; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; JAK-STAT: Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells

Cancer Development Feature	Details	Key Findings
Increased cancer risk	COVID-19 survivors show an increased risk of cancer development, particularly due to immune dysregulation and chronic inflammation.	Increased IL-6 and TNF-α levels, oxidative stress markers, prolonged inflammation [18].
Epigenetic alterations	Alterations in DNA methylation patterns, particularly hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes, contributing to malignant transformation.	Hyperactive oncogenic pathways (e.g. JAK-STAT, MAPK, NF-κB) identified in post-COVID cases [18,19].
Synchronous and metachronous cancers	Post-COVID-19, there is an increased occurrence of synchronous and metachronous primary cancers, possibly due to immune suppression and chronic inflammation.	Studies show higher incidence of multiple primary tumors and hematological malignancies such as lymphoma and leukemia [76-78].
Rare cell type cancers	Increased incidence of rare cancers such as small cell carcinoma and angiosarcoma, potentially linked to COVID-19-induced immune dysregulation.	Significant rise in rare cell type cancers documented in post-COVID-19 cases [80-82].