Table 3.

Angiogenic factors relating to anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory of EPCs

Factor	EPC phenotype	Effect on inflammation and immunity	Involved pathway	Refs.
VEGF	CD34+/CD133+	↓ inflammation	↓ TLR4-NF-κB and PI3K-Akt	39,40,43
TGF-β	CD34+/CD133+	↓pro-inflammatory cytokine ↑ M2 and Treg ↓Th17	Unknown	45,48
FGF	ECFCs	↓IL-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1 ↓CD40	ERK1/2 NF-κB2	51,52
G-CSF/GM-CSF	CD34+/CD133+	↑ CD103+ DCs ↑M2, Th2 and Treg ↓TNF-α and IL-1β ↓T cell recruitment	Unknown Epigenetic modifications	53,54
HGF	ECFCs	↑ IL-1Ra ↓TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β ↑CD14+ and IL-10 ↓CD4+  ↑ Th2	NF-κB ERK1/2	20,57,61
PDGF	ECFCs	↑IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 ↓MMP-3, MMP-13, COX-2, IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- α ↑ M2 and Treg	NF-κB p65 translocation PI3K/Akt-MEK/ERK	63,64