Table 2.

Compendium of gold standards for the treatment of diabetic complications

Complication types	Gold standard	Indication	Mechanism	Effect	Side effects	References
Diabetic retinopathy	Anti-VEGF therapy	Proliferative diabetic retinopathy, diabetic macular edema	Inhibits VEGF, reducing neovascularization and macular edema	Reduces vision loss, improves visual acuity	Eye pain, intraocular inflammation, vitreous hemorrhage	[75]
	Laser photocoagulation	Proliferative diabetic retinopathy, severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy	Destroys ischemic retinal tissue to prevent neovascularization	Stabilizes retinal structure, prevents vision loss	Eye pain, peripheral vision loss, scarring	[76]
Diabetic nephropathy	Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors)	Proteinuria, hypertension	Inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme, reducing blood pressure and proteinuria	Reduce blood pressure, protects renal function	Hyperkalemia, cough, angioedema	[77]
	Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)	Proteinuria, hypertension	Blocks angiotensin II receptors, reducing blood pressure and proteinuria	Reduce blood pressure, protects renal function	Hyperkalemia, dizziness, kidney dysfunction	[78]
	Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2 inhibitors)	Proteinuria, early diabetic nephropathy	Reduces glucose reabsorption in kidneys, reducing blood sugar and improving renal outcomes	Reduce blood glucose, reduces proteinuria	Genital infections, dehydration, ketoacidosis	[79]
Diabetic neuropathy	Antidepressants	Peripheral neuropathy, pain	Inhibits serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake, modulating pain pathways	Reduces neuropathic pain, improves quality of life	Drowsiness, dizziness, nausea	[80]
	Anticonvulsants	Peripheral neuropathy, pain	Modulates calcium channel function, reducing neuronal excitability	Reduces neuropathic pain, improves sleep quality	Dizziness, weight gain, peripheral edema	[81]
Diabetic foot	Debridement	Ulcers, necrotic tissue	Removes necrotic tissue, promotes wound healing	Enhances wound healing, prevents infection	Pain, bleeding, infection	[82]
	Antibiotics	Infected ulcers, soft tissue infections	Eliminates bacterial infection, reducing inflammation	Resolves infection, prevents spread	Antibiotic resistance, gastrointestinal upset	[83]
	Offloading devices	Pressure ulcers	Redistributes pressure away from ulcers, reducing mechanical stress	Promotes ulcer healing, prevents new ulcers	Discomfort, skin irritation	[84]
Diabetic cardiovascular disease	Statins	Hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis	Inhibits HMG-CoA reductase, reducing cholesterol levels	Reduce low density lipoprotein cholesterol, reduces cardiovascular risk	Muscle pain, liver enzyme elevation	[85]
	Beta-blockers	Hypertension, heart failure	Blocks β-adrenergic receptors, reducing heart rate and blood pressure	Reduce blood pressure, reduces heart failure symptoms	Fatigue, bradycardia, hypotension	[86]
	ACE inhibitors	Hypertension, heart failure	Inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme, reducing blood pressure and myocardial workload	Reduce blood pressure, improves heart function	Hyperkalemia, cough, angioedema	[87]