FIGURE 2.

Multiple applications of BEV in cancer therapy. BEVs exhibit potent immunotherapeutic potential by modulating the immune microenvironment of tumours through induction of M1 polarization, augmentation of NK cell activity, and maturation of immature DCs to facilitate T cell differentiation into CTLs. The combination of BEV with photothermal therapy enables the activation of photosensitizers by external laser irradiation, thereby promoting tumour cell death. BEV also can serve as a carrier for various chemotherapy drugs to enhance their efficacy. When combined with gene therapy, BEV penetrates tumour cells and regulates the expression of crucial proteins to induce tumour cell death. Incorporating viral factors can be used to create tumour vaccines. The synergistic integration of these therapeutic modalities often yields optimal treatment outcomes. BEVs, bacterial extracellular vesicles; CTLs, cytotoxic T lymphocyte; DCs, dendritic cells.