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. 2024 Sep 25;5:1438252. doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1438252

Table 1.

Environmental factors that shape the composition of the gut microbiome of the child.

Gut microbiome alterations
Environmental factors Actinomycetota Bacteroidota Bacillota Pseudomonadota Verrucomicrobiota Bacteria diversity Ref.
Maternal obesity Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Bacteroides spp. ↑ Staphylococcus spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↑ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ (8, 11)
Gestational Age Pre-term birth Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Bacteroides spp. ↓ Staphylococcus spp. ↑ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ (8, 11, 12)
Full-term birth Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ Bacteroides spp. ↑ (12)
Type of delivery Vaginal delivery Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ Prevotella spp. ↑ Bacteroides fragilis Lactobacillus spp. ↑ Streptococcus spp. ↑ Escherichia spp. ↑ (8, 1113)
C-section Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Propionibacterium spp. ↑ Corynebacterium spp. ↑ Clostridium I ↑ Clostridium difficileStaphylococcus spp. ↑ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ (8, 1113)
Type of feeding Breastfeeding Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ Lactobacillus spp. ↑ (11, 12)
Formula feeding Atopobium spp. ↑ Bacteroides spp. ↑ Staphylococcus spp. ↑ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ (11, 12)
Weaning Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Bacteroides spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↑ Oscillospiraceae ↑ Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Enterobacteriaceae ↓ Akkermansia spp. ↑ (11)
Older siblings Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ (11)
Antibiotic treatment Macrolide Bacteroides spp. ↑ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ (14)
Vancomycin Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Clostridium spp. ↓ (14)
Ciprofloxacin Faecalibacterium spp. ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ (14)
Clindamycin (14)
Ampicillin Bacteroides spp. ↓ Clostridium I ↑ Streptococcus spp. ↓ Enterococcus spp. ↑ (14)
PPIs treatment Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Clostridium difficile Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Haemophilus spp. ↑ (8, 15)
Smoking exposure Ruminococcus spp. ↑ Akkermansia spp. ↑ (8)
Diet High-fat Bacteroides spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ (16, 17)
Animal-based proteins Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Bacteroides spp. ↑ Alistipes spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ (11, 16, 17)
Plant proteins Lactobacillaceae (17)
Complex carbohydrates Prevotella spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↑ Oscillospiraceae ↑ (16, 17)
Food additives Bacteroides spp. ↑ Porphyromonadaceae ↑ Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ (17)
HHS Vulnerability Disclosure