Maternal obesity |
|
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ |
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
Staphylococcus spp. ↑ Lachnospiraceae ↑ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ |
|
↓ |
(8, 11) |
Gestational Age |
Pre-term birth |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ |
Bacteroides spp. ↓ |
Staphylococcus spp. ↑ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ |
|
↓ |
(8, 11, 12) |
Full-term birth |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ |
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
|
|
|
↑ |
(12) |
Type of delivery |
Vaginal delivery |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ |
Prevotella spp. ↑ Bacteroides fragilis ↑ |
Lactobacillus spp. ↑ Streptococcus spp. ↑ |
Escherichia spp. ↑ |
|
↑ |
(8, 11–13) |
C-section |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ Propionibacterium spp. ↑ Corynebacterium spp. ↑ |
|
Clostridium I ↑ Clostridium difficile ↑ Staphylococcus spp. ↑ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ |
|
↓ |
(8, 11–13) |
Type of feeding |
Breastfeeding |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ |
|
Lactobacillus spp. ↑ |
|
|
↑ |
(11, 12) |
Formula feeding |
Atopobium spp. ↑ |
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
Staphylococcus spp. ↑ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ |
|
↓ |
(11, 12) |
Weaning |
|
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ |
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
Lachnospiraceae ↑ Oscillospiraceae ↑ Lactobacillus spp. ↓ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↓ |
Akkermansia spp. ↑ |
↑ |
(11) |
Older siblings |
|
Bifidobacterium spp. ↑ |
|
|
|
|
↑ |
(11) |
Antibiotic treatment |
Macrolide |
|
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
↓ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ |
|
↓ |
(14) |
Vancomycin |
|
|
Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Clostridium spp. ↓ |
|
|
↓ |
(14) |
Ciprofloxacin |
|
|
Faecalibacterium spp. ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ |
|
|
↓ |
(14) |
Clindamycin |
|
|
|
|
|
↓ |
(14) |
Ampicillin |
|
Bacteroides spp. ↓ |
Clostridium I ↑ Streptococcus spp. ↓ |
Enterococcus spp. ↑ |
|
↓ |
(14) |
PPIs treatment |
|
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ |
|
Lactobacillus spp. ↓ Clostridium difficile ↑ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Haemophilus spp. ↑ |
|
|
(8, 15) |
Smoking exposure |
|
|
|
Ruminococcus spp. ↑ |
|
Akkermansia spp. ↑ |
|
(8) |
Diet |
High-fat |
|
Bacteroides spp. ↑ |
Lachnospiraceae ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ |
|
|
(16, 17) |
Animal-based proteins |
Bifidobacterium spp. ↓ |
Bacteroides spp. ↑ Alistipes spp. ↑ |
Lachnospiraceae ↓ Oscillospiraceae ↓ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ |
|
|
(11, 16, 17) |
Plant proteins |
|
|
Lactobacillaceae ↑ |
|
|
|
(17) |
Complex carbohydrates |
|
Prevotella spp. ↑ |
Lachnospiraceae ↑ Oscillospiraceae ↑ |
|
|
|
(16, 17) |
Food additives |
|
Bacteroides spp. ↑ Porphyromonadaceae ↑ |
Lactobacillus spp. ↓ |
Enterobacteriaceae ↑ Enterococcus spp. ↑ |
|
|
(17) |