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. 2024 Jun 22;4(3):298–312. doi: 10.1007/s43657-023-00140-y

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Schematic of photo-pyroptosis. It is reported that photo-pyroptosis can be induced through the caspase-1/GSDMD pathway and caspase-3/8/GSDME pathway. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced in the photodynamic therapy (PDT) process is the main stimulant of the caspase-1/GSDMD pathway. The photosensitizers designed by Su et al. (2022) and Wu et al. (2021) had the membrane-anchoring ability and could generate ROS in situ on cellular membranes. ROS was subsequently recognized by NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein 3(NLRP3)-apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD (ASC), activating the caspase-1/GSDMD pathway of pyroptosis. Inflammatory cytokines were released simultaneously and triggered an anti-tumor immune response. PDT could also start caspase-3/8 by inhibiting pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), thus activating the caspase-3/8/GSDME pathway of pyroptosis (Li et al. 2021)