Table 1.

Examples of FLW sources, their major components, and potential for material production. Also included are the fractions/components proposed for use in bioplastics, according to the recent literature, as cited

FLW	Annual generation [Mt]	Useful components/fractions a)	Fractions used for bioplastics
Apple pomace	24[ 61 ]	Pectin (3–14%),[ 62 ] lignin (15–23%),[ 62 ] cellulose (7–44%),[ 62 ] phenolics (0.5%)[ 63 ]	Cellulose;[ 64 ] bulk apple pomace [ 65 , 66 ]
Banana peels	34.7[ 67 , 68 ]	Starch (30%),[ 69 ] cellulose (18.7%), pectin (14.2%), lignin (16.8%),[ 70 ] phenolics (≈1%)[ 71 ]	Pectin,[ 72 ] cellulose,[ 72 , 73 ] phenolics[ 74 ]
Brewer's spent grains	39[ 75 ]	Arabinoxylans (22–29%),[ 76 , 77 ] cellulose (17.9%),[ 77 ] lignin (12–28%),[ 77 , 78 ] protein (15– 30%)[ 75 , 78 ]	Arabinoxylans,[ 79 ] feruloylated arabinoxylo‐oligosaccharides,[ 79 ] protein[ 80 ]
Coconut fiber	23[ 81 ]	Cellulose (31.6%), hemicelluloses (25.5%), lignin (35.1%)[ 82 ]	Cellulose,[ 83 ] phenolics[ 84 ]
Coffee husks	1.8[ 67 , 85 ]	Cellulose (29.2%), lignin (22.3%)[ 85 ], phenolics (≈0.3%)[ 86 ]	Cellulose,[ 87 , 88 ] phenolics[ 88 ]
Corn gluten meal	1.1 only in USA[ 89 ]	Proteins (zein, 41–48%; glutelin, 17–20%)[ 90 ]	Zein[ 91 , 92 , 93 ]
Corn stover	1,836[ 67 , 94 ]	Cellulose (32.7%), hemicelluloses (31.1%), lignin (10.1%)[ 94 ]	Cellulose[ 95 ]
Grape pomace	10[ 96 ]	Pectin (32%),[ 97 ] cellulose (16.4%),[ 98 ] phenolics (<4%)[ 99 ] including anthocyanins (0.5%)[ 100 ]	Cellulose,[ 101 ] phenolics,[ 102 , 103 ] anthocyanins;[ 104 ] bulk grape pomace[ 105 ]
Mango stones (kernels + shells) + peels	22.5[ 106 ]	Stones: cellulose (55%),[ 107 ] lignin (23.8%),[ 107 ] starch (33%).[ 108 ] Peels: pectin (16–27%),[ 109 ] cellulose (8.2%),[ 35 ] lignin (6.4%),[ 35 ] phenolics (1.5%)[ 110 ]	Starch,[ 60 , 111 ], cellulose,[ 111 ] fat,[ 60 ] phenolics;[ 35 , 60 , 112 ] bulk mango peel [ 35 ]
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB)	54[ 67 , 113 ]	Cellulose (24–65%), hemicelluloses (21–33%), lignin (14–30%)[ 114 ]	Cellulose,[ 115 , 116 ] bulk OPEFB[ 117 ]
Olive pomace	2[ 118 ]	Lignin (43.2%), hemicelluloses (22.3%), cellulose (12.5%), lipids (16.6%)[ 119 ]	Bulk olive pomace[ 120 , 121 , 122 ]
Orange peels/pomace	15.6[ 123 ]	Cellulose (30–38%),[ 124 ] pectin (11.5%)[ 125 ]	Bulk orange pomace (sugars removed)[ 126 ]
Pineapple leaf	76.4[ 127 ]	Cellulose (70–85%), hemicelluloses (6–19%), lignin (4–15%)[ 128 ]	Cellulose;[ 129 , 130 ] pineapple leaf pulp[ 131 ]
Potato peels	0.07– 0.14[ 132 ]	Starch (44.8%), cellulose (34.3%), lignin (4.3%)[ 133 ]	Bulk potato peels[ 134 , 135 ]
Rice husk	800[ 136 ]	Cellulose (25–35%), lignin (26–31%), silica (15–17%)[ 136 ]	Cellulose,[ 87 , 88 , 137 ] phenolics[ 88 ]
Rice straw	650– 975[ 136 ]	Cellulose (37%), lignin (14%)[ 138 ]	Cellulose,[ 139 , 140 , 141 ] hemicelluloses,[ 140 ] lignin;[ 140 ] bulk rice straw[ 142 ]
Spent coffee grounds (SCG)	6[ 143 ]	Hemicelluloses (30–40%, mainly mannans and arabinogalactans),[ 143 ] cellulose (12.4%),[ 144 ] lignin (23.9%),[ 144 ] proteins (13.6%),[ 145 ] phenolics (≈2%)[ 145 ]	(Total) polysaccharides,[ 146 , 147 ] hemicelluloses,[ 148 ] cellulose;[ 149 ] bulk SCG;[ 150 ] SCG extract (with caffeine, chlorogenic acids, and fatty acids)[ 151 ]
Sugarcane bagasse	533[ 67 , 152 ]	Cellulose (42.2%), hemicelluloses (27.6%), lignin (21.6%)[ 153 ]	Cellulose,[ 154 ] hemicelluloses;[ 155 ] bulk sugarcane bagasse fibers[ 156 , 157 , 158 ]
Tomato pomace	5.4–9.0[ 159 ]	Cellulose (13.9%),[ 160 ] pectin (28%),[ 161 ] phenolics (0.1%),[ 162 ] lipidic fraction (25%)[ 163 ] including cutin (20%)[ 162 ]	Lipidic fraction[ 163 , 164 , 165 ]
Wheat straw	807[ 67 , 166 ]	Cellulose (32.6),[ 167 ] hemicelluloses (29.9%, mainly arabinoxylans),[ 167 , 168 ] lignin (≈20%)[ 169 ]	Hemicelluloses,[ 167 , 168 , 170 ] cellulose;[ 168 ] alkali‐treated wheat straw[ 171 ]
Meat (beef, pork, chicken) by‐products	201 (for a meat: residue ratio of 1.5)[ 172 ]	Collagen: ≈30% in hides, [ 173 ] 25% in bones,[ 174 ] 70–80% in tendons.[ 175 ] Keratin: 90% in chicken feathers[ 176 ]	Collagen,[ 177 , 178 ] gelatin,[ 179 , 180 , 181 ] keratin[ 182 , 183 , 184 ]
Crustacean shells	6–8[ 185 ]	Chitin: 15–40%[ 185 , 186 ]	Chitin,[ 187 , 188 , 189 ] chitosan[ 188 , 190 , 191 ]
Fish waste	76[ 192 ]	Collagen/gelatin: up to 70% in skins[ 193 ]	Collagen,[ 194 , 195 ] gelatin,[ 180 , 196 , 197 ] gelatin hydrolysate[ 198 , 199 ]
Milk whey	180[ 200 ]	Protein (12%)[ 201 ]	Whey protein isolate[ 202 ]

^a) If provided in the literature, the actual component content (from chemical evaluations) is provided on a dry basis. Otherwise, extraction yields are provided instead (shown in italics).