Table 2.
Composition and mechanical properties (σ, tensile strength; ε, elongation at break; E, Young's modulus) of bioplastics produced from bulk FLW
| FLW material | Additional components a) | Processing b) | Tensile properties | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mixed fruit‐vegetable flour | – | Casting | σ = 0.27 MPa; ε ≈ 30%; E = 3 kPa | [ 482 ] |
| Apple pomace | Glycerol (7%) | Casting | σ = 3.3–16.5 MPa; ε = 11– 55% | [ 65 ] |
| Glycerol (43%) | Compression molding (8 MPa, 20 min, 100 °C) | σ = 3.0–5.8 MPa; ε = 0.9– 1.5%; E = 0.4–0.6 GPa | ||
| Carrot waste | HPMC (optimum: 42%), cellulose fibers (optimum: 160%) | Casting (bench mode) | σ = 30 MPa; ε = 2.8%; E = 2.0 GPa | [ 483 ] |
| Casting (continuous mode) | σ = 7 MPa; ε = 0.6%; E = 1.6 GPa | |||
| – | Casting (in a HCl 5% solution) | σ = 38 MPa; ε < 6%; E = 1.3 GPa | [ 485 ] | |
| Cocoa pod husk | – | Casting (in TFA) | σ = 30 MPa; ε = 10%; E ≈ 1.1 GPa | [ 474 ] |
| Parsley stems | – | Casting (in TFA) | σ = 5 MPa; ε = 45%; E ≈ 0.1 GPa | [ 474 ] |
| Pomelo peel | Alginate (5%), glycerol (17%), tea polyphenols (0–20%) | Casting | σ = 14.5–18.5 MPa; ε = 12– 15% | [ 484 ] |
| Potato peel | Glycerol (30%) | Casting (after high‐pressure homogenization at 138 MPa) | σ ≈10 MPa; ε = 5–7%; E ≈ 0.4 GPa | [ 489 ] |
| Rice hulls | – | Casting (in TFA) | σ = 7 MPa; ε = 3%; E ≈ 0.85 GPa | [ 474 ] |
| Rice straw: hemicellulose/lignin matrix (HL) and CNF reinforcement (0–30% on HL) | Sorbitol (30% on HL) | Casting | σ = 6.4–23.4 MPa; ε = 10– 12%; E = 0.17–0.70 GPa | [ 140 ] |
| Spinach stems | – | Casting (in TFA) | σ = 1 MPa; ε = 60%; E < 0.1 GPa | [ 474 ] |
| Tea waste (spent tea leaves) | Citric acid (6% on tea waste) | Casting | σ = 6.2 MPa; ε = 13% | [ 490 ] |
a)
Content of additional components provided as weight % on a dry FLW basis
b)
Unless otherwise stated, “casting” refers to bench casting using water as a solvent.