Table 1.

Overview of PGS used in electrospinning approaches. Abbreviations: KGN, kartogenin, mAcr‐PGS, methacrylated PGS; PBS‐DLS, poly(butylene succinate‐co‐dilinoleic succinate); PBMCs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate); PSF, polyethersulfone; PVA, poly(vinyl alcohol); AcOH, acetic acid, EtOH, ethanol, FA, formic acid; MeOH, methanol; SRB, sulforhodamine B; TFA, trifluoroacetic acid; YM, Young's modulus

PGS in combination with	Solvents	Mechanical properties	Other specifics	Cells/animal model	Cellular response	Proposed application	Refs.
PCL	CF/EtOH	YM: 6.3 MPa (random) ‐ 9.6 MPa (aligned) UTS: ‐ Strain: ‐	Aligned fibers	HUVECs	Enhanced cellular proliferation and organization by alignment; formation of highly organized endothelial constructs	Vascular TE	[ 105 ]
PCL, VEGF	DCM/MeOH	YM: 8 ± 2 MPa UTS: 3 ± 0.5 MPa Strain: 142 ± 29%	VEGF functionalization; potential for the formation of vascular tree in fiber mat	C2C12 myoblasts, rat cardiac progenitor cells, rat aortic endothelial cells	Attachment and growth of myogenic and vasculogenic cell lines	CTE	[ 106 ]
Sacrificial PVA, PCL	HFIP (PGS/PVA), TFE/H2O (PCL)	YM: 0.67– 0.871 MPa	Removal of PVA leaving neat PGS fibers behind	In vivo mice model	No thrombosis or stenosis; organization of contractile SMCs and neotissue in the inner part of the graft, macrophage driven‐inflammatory response to remaining polymer up to 12 months postimplantation	Vascular TE	[ 107 ]
PCL	DCM/MeOH	–	Patterned topography	C2C12 myoblasts, neonatal rat cardiomyocytes	Alignment of both cell types due to the surface topography	CTE	[ 110 ]
PCL	CF/EtOH	YM: 4.25– 7.61 MPa UTS: 1.78– 3.14 MPa Strain: 218 – 453%	Good anticoagulation property with low hemolysis percentage	Human vascular endothelial cell line EAhy926	Good biocompatibility	Vascular TE	[ 111 ]
PCL, silver	CF/EtOH	YM: 3.3 MPa (uncoated) –≈8 (with Ag) MPa UTS: ≈1.5 (uncoated) ‐ ≈2.6 (with Ag) MPa Strain: ≈200 (uncoated) ‐ ≈175 (with Ag) %	Silver coating with antibacterial properties	–	–	Diverse	[ 45 ]
PCL	CF/EtOH	–	Aligned fibers	Human corneal epithelial cells, human corneal keratocytes	Good biocompatibility, formation of a confluent cell layer	Corneal TE	[ 38 ]
PCL	CF/EtOH	Surface moduli of 0.26 GPa, 0.29 GPa, 0.12 GPa, and 0.16 GPa for PGS/PCL 4:1, 3:1, 2:1 1:1	Aligned fibers	Human corneal endothelial cells, human conjunctival epithelial cells, and PBMCs	Best cell organization, cyto‐ and immunocompatibility in a higher content of PGS in PGS–PCL blend	Corneal TE	[ 16 ]
PCL, silver	CF/EtOH	–	Silver coating with pattern	NIH 3T3 fibroblasts	Good biocompatibility	Diverse	[ 97 ]
PCL, PEGylated‐CH nanoparticles	CF/EtOH	–	Additional patterning of a bioresorbable metallic heater for thermal stimulation of on‐demand antibiotic release; antibacterial properties	Keratinocytes	Good biocompatibility	Wound healing, drug delivery	[ 19 ]
PCL, gelatin, dexamethasone	CF/MeOH (PGS‐PCL‐dex), AcOH/H2O (gelatin)	YM: 6.3 (wet) ‐7.8 (dry) MPa UTS: 0.74 (dry) ‐1.64 (wet) MPa Strain: 36.8 (dry) ‐ 102 (wet) %	Sustained drug release for 30 d	Gingival fibroblast cells	No evidence of cytotoxicity; cell proliferation not adversely affected by Dex release	Soft TE	[ 98 ]
PCL, heparin	TFE	YM: ≈3 –≈15.5 MPa UTS: ≈2–≈4 MPa Strain: ≈250 –≈900%	Heparin functionalization	HUVECs	Improved cell attachment and proliferation after grafting of heparin	Diverse	[ 99 ]
PCL, CH, β‐TCP	CF (PGS‐PCL‐β‐TCP), TFA (PGS‐PCL‐CH)	YM: ‐ UTS: ≈1.1 –≈1.4 MPa Strain: ≈0.8 –≈2.4	Bilayered	Human fetal osteoblasts	Optimum cell behavior in blend composition with 10% β‐TCP	BTE	[ 51 ]
PCL, hydroxyapatite nanoparticles	d.n.a.	d.n.a.	d.n.a.	Bone marrow‐derived MSCs	Excellent biocompatibility and osteoblast adhesion	Bone and cartilage TE	[ 100 ]
PCL	CF/acetone (PGS‐PCL), AcOH/FA (PCL)	YM: 2.6– 3.1 MPa UTS: 0.8– 1.5 MPa Strain: ≈58 –≈65%	Nonhemolytic behavior	MSCs	Supported attachment, growth, and infiltration of cells by blend fiber mat	Vascular TE	[ 101 ]
PCL	AcOH	YM: 7– 11 MPa UTS: 4.4– 5 MPa Strain: 304–333%	Use of mildly cross‐linked PGS for electrospinning	Bone marrow‐derived stroma cell line ST2	Better cytocompatibility and cell adhesion after sterilization by 70% ethanol compared to UV sterilization	CTE	[ 33 ]
PCL	CF/EtOH/DMF	YM: 8.32 (dry) – 8.62 (wet) MPa UTS: ‐ Strain: 783 (dry)–1133 (wet) %	Bilayered construct with PU membrane layer	Mouse lung fibroblast cells (L929), HUVECs	No toxic effect of leachable components on fibroblasts; endothelial cell adhesion and proliferation on PGS/PCL fiber mat	Hernia treatment	[ 104 ]
PCL, KGN	TFE	YM: 5.06 (nonaligned)– 11.78 (aligned) MPa UTS: ≈2.3 (non‐aligned) –≈3 (aligned) MPa	Aligned core–shell fibers	Human bone marrow MSC (hBMSC)	Significant proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation on KGN‐loaded aligned nanofibrous scaffold	Cartilage TE	[ 103 ]
Sacrificial PVA	H2O (PVA), THF (PGS)	YM: ≈3 MPa (wet) –≈33 MPa (dry) UTS: ≈ 1.5 MPa (wet) –≈7 MPa (dry) Strain: 95 % (wet)– ≈130% (dry)	PGS only fibers	SNL mouse fibroblasts	Good biocompatibility	Soft TE	[ 133 ]
Sacrificial PVA	HFIP	YM: 0.1– 0.8 MPa UTS: ≈1 MPa Strain: 200 –800%	PGS only fibers	3T3 fibroblasts, Human cord blood endothelial cells (hcbEC), in vivo mice model	Round to elongated adhered cell morphology; higher cytocompatibility of highly cross‐linked materials; In vivo: surrounded by collagen‐rich matrix and multinucleated giant cells and fibroblast‐like cells in implant bulk	Diverse	[ 96 ]
PVA	DMF/H2O	YM: 0.04 (wet)– 7.08 (dry) MPa UTS: 2 (dry)–70 (dry) MPa Strain: 34.5 (dry)–287 (wet) %	Modified PGS synthesis (1:0.8 molar mixture of glycerol and sebacic acid; 170 °C; 3, 5, and 7 h); Aligned fibers	Rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12)	Good biocompatibility	Nerve TE	[ 114 ]
PVA, lignin	H2O, DMF	YM: 0.1– 0.4 MPa UTS: 20.24–72.8 MPa Strain: 51– 179.5%	–	Rat pheochromocytoma cells PC12	Cell proliferation and neural cell differentiation in the presence of lignin	Nerve TE	[ 113 ]
PLLA	CF/DMF (PLLA), THF (PGS)	YM: 6.5– 15.8 MPa UTS: 2.2– 4.5 MPa Strain: 25.1–43.4%	Aligned core–shell fibers	–	–	Diverse	[ 118 ]
PLLA	DMF/DMC	YM: 7.2– 336.2 MPa UTS: 1.1– 6.8 MPa Strain:13– 66%	During cross‐linking creation of core (PLLA)–shell (PGS) fibers	Hypothalamus A59 nerve cells	Enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation for core–shell samples	Nerve TE	[ 119 ]
PLGA	HFIP (PGS), NaCl, SRB dye, HFIP (PLGA)	–	–	–	–	Diverse	[ 121 ]
PLGA	HFIP	YM: 1.3 ± 0.66 MPa UTS: ‐ Strain: –	–	SIMS salivary ductal epithelial cell, NIH3T3 mesenchymal cells	Cell penetration in the structure and apical localization of tight junction proteins; coculture facilitated epithelial tissue reorganization and significantly increased apical localization of tight junction protein	Soft TE	[ 122 ]
PLA	HFIP	–	Different esterification levels of PGS	–	–	Diverse	[ 117 ]
Sacrificial PEO/PLA	THF (PGS), THF/DMF (PEO/PLA)	YM: ≈1– 140 MPa UTS: ≈0.5–6 MPa Strain: ≈1.05–2.5%	PGS only fibers	HUASMCs	Good biocompatibility	Soft TE	[ 120 ]
Sacrificial PEO/PLA	THF (PGS), DCM/DMF (PEO‐PLA)	YM: ≈0.5 (perpendicular) – ≈ 1 (in alignment) MPa UTS: ≈0.36 (perpendicular) –≈0.72 (in alignment) MPa Strain: ≈160 (perpendicular) – ≈ 170 (in alignment) %	Aligned core–shell fibers	HUASMCs	Cell adhesion on random and aligned fibers, and cell alignment on aligned fibers	Diverse	[ 134 ]
Collagen type I, silk fibroin	HFIP	YM: 2.3– 5.0 MPa UTS: 0.8– 1.5 MPa Strain: 30–70%	Low thrombogenic potential	Endothelial cells	Cells adhered, proliferated, and formed cell–cell junctions	Vascular TE	[ 127 ]
Fibrinogen, VEGF	HFIP	–	VEGF functionalization	In vivo porcine model	Improvement in ejection fraction (EF) and prevention of LV enlargement; expression of cardiac marker proteins	CTE	[ 129 ]
PBS‐DLA	DCM/MeOH	YM: 1.2– 7.5 MPa UTS: 1.58–2.7 MPa Strain: 85.5–147.6%	–	C2C12 myoblasts, postnatal rat cardiomyocytes	Cytocompatibility with C2C12 myoblasts, the higher the PBS–DLA content in the fiber mats, the better the cell attachment and proliferation; postnatal rat cardiomyocytes better attachment on higher PGS content fibers with well‐aligned sarcomeres and high amounts of connexin43	CTE	[ 115 ]
PBS‐DLS	DCM/MeOh	YM: 3.5 (37 °C)–4.7 (RT) MPa UTS: 1.23 (37 °C)– 1.8 (RT) MPa Strain: ≈132%	Surface modification by exposing carboxylic groups	–	–	Soft TE	[ 116 ]
Zein	AcOH	YM: 6.5– 14 MPa UTS: 0.32–13 MPa Strain: 5–7%	–	–	–	CTE	[ 130 ]
Zein	AcOH	YM: 7– 32 MPa UTS: 1–‐ 2 MPa Strain: 5– 11 MPa	Use of mildly cross‐linked PGS for electrospinning	–	–	Soft TE	[ 131 ]
PGS–PMMA, gelatin	HFIP	–	Methyl mAcr–PGS	Rat PC12 cells	Fiber mats promoted cell proliferation, elongated cell morphology, potential for neurite outgrowth	Nerve TE	[ 20 ]
PSF	THF/DMF	–	Compressible, moldable, 3D, drug delivery	In vivo mice model	–	Diverse	[ 123 ]
Chitin, Lignin, PEO	EtOH, NaOH, H2O	YM: ≈7–≈12 MPa UTS: ≈0.75 –≈3 MPa Strain: ≈20 –≈140%	Antibacterial and antifungal activity	–	–	Wound healing	[ 132 ]
SIM, PHB, CIP	CF/DMF(PGS‐Sim), TFA (PHB‐CIP)	–	Dual drug incorporation in core–shell fibers; burst release of CIP, slower release SIM; antibacterial activity	–	–	Wound healing	[ 124 ]
Gelatin, CIP	Aqueous AcOH	–	Antibacterial activity	Fibroblast cell line (L929)	Promoted cell attachment, growth, proliferation, and immigration from the surface into interconnected pores	Wound healing	[ 128 ]
TPU	CF/DMF or HFIP or TFE/AcOH	YM: 0.83– 1.14 MPa UTS:8.76–9.67 MPa Strain: 339–375%	Leaf‐like structure observed for HFIP	Swiss mouse NIH 3T3 fibroblasts	Improved biocompatibility compared to TPU only scaffolds	Vocal fold TE	[ 35 ]
PVP	HFIP (PGS), DMF/EtOH/H2O (PVP)	YM: 1.3– 170 MPa UTS: 1.1– 3.5 MPa Strain: 3.1–328%	Nozzle free electrospinning	Human skin fibroblast cells (HDF‐hTERT)	Good cell viability and proliferation	Skin TE	[ 232 ]
Poly(glycerol‐1,8‐octanediol‐sebacate)	CF/EtOH	YM: 3.61 MPa uncross‐linked, 106.1 MPa cross‐linked UTS: 0.13 MPa uncross‐linked, 4.94 MPa cross‐linked Strain: 8% uncross‐linked, 23% cross‐linked	PGS synthesized by Candida antartica lipase B catalysis; different fractions of glycerol units replaced by 1,8‐octanediol units	–	–	Diverse	[ 135 ]