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. 2021 Oct 12;11(1):2101834. doi: 10.1002/adhm.202101834

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Mechanisms of cytotoxicity induced by graphene nanomaterials. Graphene interacts actively with the cell membranes and penetrates it due to its small size. Upon entry, it can result in an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by inducing oxidative stress. It can further inhibit electron transport chain, causing a depletion in cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) level. These phenomena can result in DNA damage and inflammation, which can further trigger cell apoptosis. Reproduced with permission.[ 44 ] Copyright 2016, Elsevier.