Table 1.

Current bio‐piezoelectric platforms and their biomedical applications

Biomedical application	Piezoelectric phase	Morphology	Dimension	Synthesis route	Application	Working site	Working condition	Properties	Ref.
Physical Health Monitoring	P(VDF‐TrFE)	Nanowire	Diameter: ≈400 nm Length: ≈10 µm	Nanotemplate‐based electricity‐grown	Monitor small human activities	Human skin	10 mm × 10 mm device effective area	≈4.8 V maximum voltage, ≈0.11 µA cm–2 current density	[ 66 ]
	PZT	Thin film	\	Inorganic‐based laser lift‐off	Monitor epidermal pulse signals	Human skin	Within 30 kPa pressure	0.018 kPa−1 sensitivity, 60 ms response time	[ 122 ]
	PVDF	Film	Thickness:≈200 nm	\	Monitor cyclic expand‐contract movement of the chest	Human chest	37 N, 1.4 Hz cyclic mechanical force	≈1.5 V open‐circuit voltage, ≈400 nA short‐circuit current	[ 120 ]
	PZT	Ceramic	Thickness: ≈20 µm	\	Monitor gait signals during movement	Human foot	0.4 MΩ load resistance and 12 N, 1 Hz force	32 µW maximum power per chip (5 mm × 5 mm)	[ 124 ]
	PVDF	Nanofiber	Average diameter: 100–120 nm	Continuous electrospinning	Monitor body motions	Human foot	8.3 kPa of the applied stress amplitude	≈48 V open‐circuit voltage, ≈6 µA short‐circuit current	[ 172 ]
	PVDF BaTiO3	Nanofiber	\	Electrospinning	Monitor body motions	Human skin	Within 40 kPa pressure	0.017 kPa−1 sensitivity, 290 ms response time	[ 173 ]
	PVDF	Nanofiber	\	Electrospinning	Monitor micropressure changes outside cardiovascular walls	Cardiovascular wall	1.5 Hz, 1 kPa pressure	1154 V cm–3 piezoelectric output	[ 115c ]
	PMN‐PZT	Film	Thickness: ≈20 µm	Solid‐state crystal growth	Monitor the heartbeat	Epicardium	2 cm curvature radius, 0.4 Hz frequency mechanical bending	≈40 V open‐circuit voltage, ≈4.5 µA short‐circuit current	[ 109 ]
Disease Diagnosing	PVDF	Film	\	Spin‐coating	Detection of disease gas markers	Exhaled air	4–9 m s–1 airflow rate	0–600 ppm gas markers concentration detection range	[ 134 ]
	ZnO	Film	Thickness: ≈600 nm	Radio frequency sputtering	Detection of acute myocardial infarction markers	Serum	10 µL sample consumption	20 pg mL–1 cTnI concentration detection limit	[ 131 ]
	PZT	Ceramic	\	\	Detection of cancer markers	Serum	1 µL sample consumption, within 30 min	0.25 ng mL–1 PSA concentration detection limit	[ 106 ]
	PZT	Ceramic	\	\	Detection of mechanical heterogeneity in thyroid tissue lesions	Thyroid tissue	Standard Becton Dickinson (BD) 25 Gauge 3.50″ fine needle	Malignant tissue lesions were rapidly detected based on heterogeneity of tissue hardness/stiffness	[ 132 ]
	ZnO	Nanowire	Diameter: ≈150 nm Average length: ≈12 µm	Seed‐assisted hydrothermal synthesis	Detection of the urea/uric‐acid concentration	Human skin	Urea concentration range: 0–80 × 10–3 m, uric acid concentration range: 0–0.6 × 10–3 m	Linear response to urea concentration and uric acid concentration	[ 174 ]
	PVDF	Film	Thickness: ≈28 µm	\	Detection of tactile signals of submucosal tumors	Mucosa	Young's modulus range: 1.01–3.51 MPa	Sensor response is proportional to the Young's modulus of test sample	[ 175 ]
Bionic/Smart Devices	ZnO	Nanowire	Average diameter: ≈250 nm Average length: 10–14 µm	Seed‐assisted hydrothermal synthesis	Detection of taste‐producing substances	Taste bud	2 × 10−2 m ascorbic acid	171.7 relative response value	[ 139 ]
	ZnO	Nanowire	Diameter: ≈50 nm Aspect ratio: 20	Solution‐based hydrothermal synthesis	Detection of both static and dynamic tactile stimuli	Human skin	Within 0.3 kPa pressure	–6.8 kPa−1 sensitivity	[ 88 ]
	ZnO PVDF	Film	\	Thermal evaporation and wet‐chemical method	Detection of motion‐powered atmosphere	Human skin	57° bending angle, relative oxygen concentration range: 20%‐50%, relative humidity range: 45%‐85%	Linear response to oxygen concentration and relative humidity	[ 137 a]
	PVDF	Film	\	\	Detection of plantar pressure signals	Human plantar	Within 200 kPa pressure	0.00814 V kPa–1 sensitivity	[ 176 ]
	PZT	Nanofiber	\	Electrospinning	Detection of tactile pressure	Human skin	Measurement pressure range: 0–1300 kPa	18.96 V kPa–1 sensitivity	[ 177 ]
	PVDF	Nanofiber	Average diameter: 993 ± 631 nm	Electrospinning	Sensing of pressure, integrating cold/heat	Human skin	Measurement force range: 3–53 N, measurement initial temperature range: 20–80 °C	Pressure‐sensing signal became steady‐state, while pyroelectric signal appeared as a pulse	[ 138 ]
	PZT P(VDF‐TrFE)	Film	Thickness: ≈100 µm	Hydrothermal method	Harvested and converted mechanical energy from human activities	\	<5 Hz bending frequency	≈16 V maximum output voltage	[ 100 ]
Cancer treatment	BaTiO3	Nanoparticle	Radius: ≈150 nm	\	Generated electrical stimulation to cancer cells	Cancer cell	1 MHz, 1 W cm–2 ultrasonic wave	Blocked the cell cycle of cancer cells and slowed their proliferation	[ 27a ]
	Black phosphorus	Nanosheet	Average thickness: 5.3 ± 3.7 nm Average lateral dimension: 162.4 ± 99.4 nm	Ultrasonic exfoliation	Eliminated cancer cells with reactive oxygen species	Cancer cell	1 MHz, 1.5 W cm–2 ultrasonic wave	>70% cell viability losses of cancer cells	[ 146 ]
	P(VDF‐TrFE)	Nanoeel	\	Templated method	Magnetic manipulation for locomotion and pulsatile drug release	Cancer cell	5‐15 mT, 1–16 Hz magnetic field (locomotion) 10 mT, 7 Hz magnetic field (drug release)	≈35% cancer cell death	[ 148 ]
	P(VDF‐TrFE)	Nanowire	Average diameter: ≈250 nm	Templated method	Magnetic manipulation for locomotion and magnetoelectric drug release	Cancer cell	<10 mT rotating magnetic field (locomotion) Alternating magnetic field with same energy source (drug release)	≈40% cancer cell death	[ 178 ]
	BaTiO3	Nanoparticle	Average diameter: 106.91 ± 49.72 nm	Solvothermal process and thermal annealing	Eliminated cancer cells with reactive oxygen species	Cancer cell	1 W cm–2 ultrasonic wave	Cancer cell viability decreased to 12.6%	[ 67b ]
	KNNSe	Ceramic	Diameter: ≈10 mm Thickness: ≈1 mm	Solid phase sintering	Eliminated cancer cells	Cancer cell	3 d of cocultivation	Cancer cell viability decreased to 30%	[ 179 ]
	PVDF	Film	\	\	Eliminated cancer cells	Cancer cell	12 d of intermittent continuous light stimulation	87.46% tumor inhibition rate	[ 180 ]
Tissue regeneration	ZnO	Nanorod	Length: 2.79 ± 0.14 µm Diameter: 0.58 ± 0.07 µm	Hydrothermal method	Generation of endogenous electric field at the wound	Skin wound	2 × 2 cm2 area with 95.2% ZnO nanorods filling density	Enhanced cell migration, metabolic activity, and differentiation	[ 153 ]
	BaTiO3	Nanoparticle	\	\	Regenerated bone	Osteoblast cell	60 N, 3 Hz force	Enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity and bone‐inducing activity	[ 27b ]
	LiNbO3	\	\	\	Fabricated therapeutic vascular tissue	Skeletal muscle	4 weeks after transplantation	72.8% of blood flow restored	[ 181 ]
	PVDF	Nanocomposite	\	Solvent casting	Induced cellular mechano‐ and electro‐transduction process in bone	Osteoblast cell	4 d of cocultivation	Formed a bone‐mimicking structure that improves cell seeding and proliferation	[ 151 ]
	P(VDF‐TrFE)	Nanofiber	Diameter: 1.24 ± 0.13 µm	Electrospinning	Stimulated cardiac muscle cells	Cardiac muscle cell	12 d of cocultivation	Promoted cardiomyocyte attachment, proliferation and alignment, preserving contractility	[ 182 ]
	PVDF	Nanofiber	\	Electrospinning	Stimulated osteoblast cells	Osteoblast cell	3 d of cocultivation	Exhibited higher Saos‐2 cells activity	[ 105 ]
Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative treatment	P(VDF‐TrFE) BaTiO3	Film	\	\	Enhanced differentiation during cell growth	Neuronal cell	1 W cm–2 ultrasonic wave	Promoted neuronal maturation and neurite outgrowth in SH‐SY5Y	[ 183 ]
	BaTiO3	Nanoparticle	Diameter: 58 ± 15 nm	\	Induced differentiation of targeted neural stem‐like cell	Neural stem‐like cell	1 MHz, 1 W cm–2 ultrasonic wave	Achieved navigation to a specific neural stem‐like PC12 cell in a controllable way	[ 159 ]
	KNNS	Ceramic	\	Solid phase sintering	Stimulated retina	Retina	30 Vpp input voltage	≈72 µA current, ≈9.2 nA µm–2 current density	[ 161 ]
	PVDF	Nanocomposite	\	\	Stimulated differentiation and proliferation of neuronal cells	Neuronal cell	7 d of cocultivation	Showed higher PC12 cell activity	[ 184 ]
	PVDF	\	\	Solvent casting	Stimulated neuronal cells	Neuronal cell	4 months after being implanted	Exhibited significant electrophysiological, morphological and functional nerve restoration	[ 185 ]
	ZnO	Nanoparticle	Average diameter: 30–80 nm	\	Stimulated cell attachment and proliferation	Schwann cell	18 weeks in vivo	Improved severe nerve defect recovery	[ 104 ]
Antifouling treatment	BaTiO3	Nanoparticle	Average diameter: ≈130 nm	Hydrothermal method	Whitened teeth	Teeth	10 h of vibration	Exhibited a whitening effect	[ 27c ]
	PVDF	Film	Thickness: 110 µm	\	Inhibited bacterial growth and antifouling effects	\	4 Hz stimuli	Inhibited biofilm formation effectively	[ 166 ]