Table 1.
Demographic, Systemic, and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Participants Stratified by OI Status (Hyposmia, Anosmia)
| Characteristics | No OI | Hyposmia | Anosmia | Overall |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 1260) | (n = 483) | (n = 358) | (N = 2101) | |
| Mean (SD) or n (%) | ||||
| Age (years) | 70.7 (7.6) | 75.1 (7.9) | 77.3 (7.6) | 72.9 (8.1) |
| Age group | ||||
| 60–69 | 631 (50.1) | 127 (26.3) | 66 (18.4) | 824 (39.2) |
| 70–79 | 410 (32.5) | 185 (38.3) | 117 (32.7) | 712 (33.9) |
| ≥80 | 219 (17.4) | 171 (35.4) | 175 (48.9) | 565 (26.9) |
| Women | 751 (59.6) | 253 (52.4) | 153 (42.7) | 1157 (55.1) |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Chinese | 612 (48.6) | 227 (47.0) | 171 (47.8) | 1010 (48.1) |
| Malay | 362 (28.7) | 133 (27.5) | 110 (30.7) | 605 (28.8) |
| Indian | 286 (22.7) | 123 (25.5) | 77 (21.5) | 486 (23.1) |
| High FMI | 516 (41.0) | 183 (37.9) | 130 (36.3) | 829 (39.5) |
| Occupation | ||||
| No occupation/unemployed | 40 (3.2) | 11 (2.3) | 8 (2.2) | 59 (2.8) |
| Employed | 354 (28.1) | 109 (22.6) | 66 (18.4) | 529 (25.2) |
| Homemakers | 146 (11.6) | 42 (8.7) | 39 (10.9) | 227 (10.8) |
| Retired | 677 (53.7) | 298 (61.7) | 223 (62.3) | 1198 (57.0) |
| Low socioeconomic status | 200 (15.9) | 84 (17.4) | 72 (20.1) | 356 (16.9) |
| Smoking status | ||||
| Never smoked | 960 (76.2) | 334 (69.2) | 239 (66.8) | 1533 (73.0) |
| Past smoker | 171 (13.6) | 82 (17.0) | 77 (21.5) | 330 (15.7) |
| Current smoker | 101 (8.0) | 52 (10.8) | 25 (7.0) | 178 (8.5) |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||
| None | 1077 (85.5) | 414 (85.7) | 292 (81.6) | 1783 (84.9) |
| ≤4 days per week | 90 (7.1) | 31 (6.4) | 27 (7.5) | 148 (7.0) |
| >4 days per week | 22 (1.7) | 11 (2.3) | 13 (3.6) | 46 (2.2) |
| Low MVPA level | 743 (59.0) | 258 (53.4) | 217 (60.6) | 1218 (58.0) |
| Systemic conditions | ||||
| Cardiovascular disease | 203 (16.1) | 79 (16.4) | 76 (21.2) | 358 (17.0) |
| Diabetes | 399 (31.7) | 167 (34.6) | 145 (40.5) | 711 (33.8) |
| Chronic kidney disease | 190 (15.1) | 104 (21.5) | 99 (27.7) | 393 (18.7) |
| Asthma | 113 (9.0) | 41 (8.5) | 27 (7.5) | 181 (8.6) |
| Hypertension | 1057 (83.9) | 422 (87.4) | 311 (86.9) | 1790 (85.2) |
| Dyslipidaemia | 1053 (83.6) | 393 (81.4) | 279 (77.9) | 1725 (82.1) |
| Neurological disorders | 151 (12.0) | 41 (8.5) | 18 (5.0) | 210 (10.0) |
| Neuropsychiatric disorders | 52 (4.1) | 27 (5.6) | 19 (5.3) | 98 (4.7) |
Notes: BP = blood pressure; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; MVPA = moderate–vigorous physical activity; OI = olfactory impairment; Q1 = 25th percentile; Q3 = 75th percentile; SD = standard deviation. High FMI = High fat mass index (FMI) defined as FMI > 8.51 for men and FMI > 11.6 for women; Low Socioeconomic Status: Having primary or lower education and individual monthly income < SGD2000; Low MVPA level: Gender-specific lowest quintile of total self-reported duration spent carrying out moderate and vigorous activity (e.g., gardening, brisk walking, dancing, jogging); cardiovascular disease: Self-reported history of angina, heart attack, heart disease, or stroke; Diabetes: HbA1c > 6.5%, random blood glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L, use of diabetic medication and self-reported; Chronic Kidney Disease: Estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2; asthma: self-reported; hypertension: systolic BP ≥ 140 mm Hg, diastolic BP ≥ 90 mm Hg, physician diagnosis, use of BP medication and/or self-report; dyslipidemia: total cholesterol ≥ 5.2 mmol/L or LDL cholesterol ≥ 3.4 mmol/L or triglycerides ≥ 1.7 mmol/L or use of anti-cholesterol medication; neurological disorders: self-reported history of neurological disorders (e.g., Parkinsons, multiple sclerosis, migraines); neuropsychiatric disorders: self-reported history of neuropsychiatric (including depression) disorders or any use of duloxetine (Cymbalta) or the class of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) medications.