Table 3.
Risk Determinants of OI Severity (Hyposmia and Anosmia)
| Variable | Comparison of OI status | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hyposmia vs no OI | Anosmia vs no OI | |||
| OR (95% CI) | p value | OR (95% CI) | p Value | |
| Age (years) | 1.10 (1.07–1.13) | <0.001 | 1.14 (1.11–1.18) | <0.001 |
| Gender | ||||
| Women | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Men | 1.66 (1.08–2.55) | 0.020 | 2.26 (1.34–3.80) | 0.002 |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Chinese | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Malay | 0.88 (0.56–1.38) | 0.576 | 1.33 (0.76–2.31) | 0.316 |
| Indian | 1.09 (0.68–1.75) | 0.711 | 0.75 (0.40–1.41) | 0.370 |
| High FMI | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.84 (0.58–1.22) | 0.358 | 0.73 (0.46–1.17) | 0.192 |
| Low socioeconomic status | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.91 (0.57–1.46) | 0.697 | 0.76 (0.42–1.37) | 0.366 |
| Smoking status | ||||
| Never smoked | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Past smoker | 1.16 (0.70–1.91) | 0.569 | 0.98 (0.55–1.76) | 0.948 |
| Current smoker | 1.74 (0.94–3.21) | 0.076 | 0.71 (0.30–1.67) | 0.434 |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||
| None | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| ≤4 days/week | 0.81 (0.45–1.43) | 0.459 | 1.07 (0.52–2.20) | 0.851 |
| >4 days/week | 0.75 (0.26–2.21) | 0.603 | 3.04 (1.17–7.86) | 0.022 |
| Low MVPA level | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.61 (0.43–0.87) | 0.006 | 0.73 (0.47–1.14) | 0.171 |
| Cardiovascular disease | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 1.00 (0.63–1.58) | 0.987 | 1.14 (0.66–1.96) | 0.636 |
| Diabetes | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 1.24 (0.86–1.79) | 0.255 | 1.59 (1.01–2.50) | 0.045 |
| Chronic kidney disease | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.60 (0.37–0.97) | 0.037 | 0.96 (0.57–1.62) | 0.879 |
| Asthma | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 1.26 (0.72–2.22) | 0.419 | 0.96 (0.45–2.06) | 0.925 |
| Hypertension | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 1.27 (0.74–2.16) | 0.381 | 0.73 (0.38–1.40) | 0.343 |
| Dyslipidemia | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.96 (0.54–1.71) | 0.894 | 1.63 (0.69–3.88) | 0.268 |
| Neurological disorders | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 0.78 (0.46–1.35) | 0.378 | 0.60 (0.28–1.29) | 0.193 |
| Neuropsychiatric disorders | ||||
| No | Reference | NA | Reference | NA |
| Yes | 1.34 (0.64–2.81) | 0.44 | 1.60 (0.63–4.05) | 0.321 |
Notes: BP = blood pressure; CI = confidence interval; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; MVPA = moderate–vigorous physical activity; NA = not applicable; OI = olfactory impairment; OR = odds ratio. High FMI = high fat mass index (FMI) defined as FMI > 8.51 for men and FMI > 11.6 for women; low socioeconomic status: having primary or lower education and individual monthly income < SGD2000; low MVPA level: Gender-specific lowest quintile of total self-reported duration spent carrying out moderate and vigorous activity (e.g., gardening, brisk walking, dancing, jogging); cardiovascular disease: self-reported history of angina, heart attack, heart disease or stroke; diabetes: HbA1c > 6.5%, random blood glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L, use of diabetic medication and self-reported; chronic kidney disease: estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2; asthma: self-reported; hypertension: systolic BP ≥ 140 mm Hg, diastolic BP ≥ 90 mm Hg, physician diagnosis, use of BP medication and self-report; dyslipidemia: total cholesterol ≥ 5.2 mmol/L or LDL cholesterol ≥ 3.4 mmol/L or triglycerides ≥ 1.7 mmol/L or use of anti-cholesterol medication; neurological disorders: Self-reported history of neurological disorders (e.g., Parkinsons, multiple sclerosis, migraines); neuropsychiatric disorders: Self-reported history of neuropsychiatric (including depression) disorders or any use of duloxetine (Cymbalta) or the class of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) medications.