Table 4.
Multivariable Associations Between OI (Hyposmia, Anosmia) and Key Health Indicators
| Health Indicators | Exposure | Estimatea (95% CI) | p Value | Overall marginal effect (95% CI) | % change |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EQ-5D (HRQoL) | |||||
| No OI | Reference | NA | |||
| Hyposmia | 0.003 (−0.011 to 0.017) | 0.701 | 0.003 (−0.011 to 0.017) | 0.30 | |
| Anosmia | −0.014 (−0.031 to 0.003) | 0.116 | −0.014 (−0.031 to 0.003) | −1.54 | |
| PHQ-9 score (depressive symptoms) | |||||
| No OI | Reference | NA | |||
| Hyposmia | −0.003 (−0.228 to 0.221) | 0.977 | −0.003 (−0.228 to 0.221) | −0.39 | |
| Anosmia | 0.076 (−0.202 to 0.353) | 0.593 | 0.076 (−0.201 to 0.353) | 9.06 | |
| Daily caloric intake (kcal/day) | |||||
| No OI | Reference | NA | |||
| Hyposmia | 12.81 (−71.64 to 97.26) | 0.766 | 12.81 (−71.55 to 97.17) | 0.68 | |
| Anosmia | 25.19 (−78.12 to 128.51) | 0.632 | 25.19 (−78.01 to 128.40) | 1.35 | |
| Frailty | |||||
| No OI | Reference | NA | |||
| Hyposmia | OR: 1.00 (0.66 to 1.51) | 0.995 | 0.000 (−0.042 to 0.042) | 0.12 | |
| Anosmia | OR: 1.22 (0.76 to 1.94) | 0.402 | 0.021 (−0.030 to 0.073) | 17.78 | |
| Cognitive impairment | |||||
| No OI | Reference | NA | |||
| Hyposmia | OR: 2.12 (1.28 to 3.50) | 0.003 | 0.050 (0.015 to 0.086) | 101.08 | |
| Anosmia | OR: 2.75 (1.63 to 4.66) | <0.001 | 0.074 (0.031 to 0.117) | 154.50 | |
Notes: CI = confidence interval; EQ-5D = EuroQoL 5-dimension; HRQoL = health-related quality of life; NA = not applicable; OI = olfactory impairment; OR = odds ratio; PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire-9; PRO = patient-reported outcome. All models are adjusted for age, gender, ethnicity, body mass index, low socioeconomic status, smoking status, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, asthma, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.
aFor EQ-5D, PHQ-9 and daily caloric intake, the estimates are coefficients derived from linear regression models. Frailty and cognitive impairment are OR derived from logistic regression models.