Table 2.

The Independent Contribution of Chronotype, Sleep Quality and Sleep Duration on Measures of Health and Psychological Characteristics

Physical and Psychological Wellbeing Variables	Chronotype				Sleep Quality				Sleep Duration
	Beta (95% CI)	p‐value	p‐value controlled	f2	Beta (95% CI)	p‐ value	p‐value controlled	f2	Beta (95% CI)	p‐value	p‐value controlled	f2	Adjusted R Square Without (with covariates)
Psychiatric Health	−0.079 (−0.114, −0.044)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.033	0.457 (0.303, 0.611)	<0.0001 abc	<0.0001	0.058	0.116 (−0.153, 0.384)	0.398	0.389	0.001	0.099 (0.109)
Mental Health	0.170 (0.080, 0.259)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.024	−1.882 (−2.274, −1.491)	<0.0001 abc	<0.0001	0.152	−0.071 (−0.753, 0.611)	0.837	0.825	0.000	0.168 (0.179)
Physical Health	0.002 (−0.072, 0.076)	0.951	0.984	0.000	−1.283 (−1.607, −0.959)	<0.0001 abc	<0.0001	0.103	−0.080 (−0.644, 0.485)	0.782	0.915	0.000	0.093 (0.106)
BMI	0.006 (−0.024, 0.036)	0.690	0.910	0.000	0.076 (−0.055, 0.207)	0.253	0.274	0.002	−0.159 (−0.388, 0.070)	0.173	0.679	0.003	0.001 (0.048)
DEBQ
Restrained Eating	0.007 (−0.001, 0.016)	0.084	0.198	0.005	0.029 (−0.008, 0.065)	0.121a	0.048	0.004	0.024 (−0.039, 0.088)	0.450	0.897	0.001	0.003 (0.122)
Emotional Eating	−0.010 (−0.018, −0.003)	0.007	0.004	0.013	0.026 (−0.007, 0.058)	0.122a	0.062	0.004	−0.017 (−0.074, 0.041)	0.570	0.235	0.001	0.015 (0.123)
External Eating	−0.016 (−0.023, −0.009)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.038	0.040 (0.011, 0.069)	0.007 a	0.014	0.013	−0.016 (−0.067, 0.034)	0.530	0.386	0.001	0.054 (0.066)
BFI
Openness	−0.045 (−0.099,0.010)	0.107	0.135	0.005	−0.123 (−0.360, 0.115)	0.311a	0.315	0.002	−0.253 (−0.669, 0.163)	0.232	0.296	0.002	0.002 (0.009)
Conscientiousness	0.231 (0.178, 0.285)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.127	−0.294 (−0.532,−0.057)	0.015 ac	0.029	0.010	0.224 (−0.190, 0.638)	0.289	0.348	0.002	0.132 (0.162)
Extraversion	0.054 (0.002,0.105)	0.040	0.011	0.007	−0.284 (−0.509,−0.059)	0.013 ab	0.005	0.011	0.064 (−0.330, 0.459)	0.748	0.982	0.000	0.017 (0.039)
Agreeableness	0.096 (0.048,0.143)	<0.0001	0.002	0.027	−0.434 (−0.644, −0.223)	<0.0001 abc	0.000	0.028	0.418 (0.052, 0.784)	0.025	0.098	0.009	0.066 (0.109)
Neuroticism	−0.105 (−0.159,−0.051)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.025	0.696 (0.461, 0.930)	<0.0001 abc	<0.0001	0.058	0.120 (−0.292, 0.531)	0.568	0.498	0.001	0.090 (0.158)
PANAS
Positive Affect	0.155 (0.094, 0.217)	<0.0001	<0.0001	0.043	−0.422 (−0.691, −0.152)	0.002 abc	0.003	0.016	−0.366 (−0.838, 0.105)	0.128	0.181	0.004	0.068 (0.062)
Negative Affect	−0.055 (−0.106,−0.004)	0.036	0.018	0.008	0.544 (0.320, 0.767)	<0.0001 abc	<0.0001	0.040	−0.020 (−0.415, 0.374)	0.920	0.966	0.000	0.049 (0.089)
BIS‐BAS
BIS	0.034 (−0.003, 0.071)	0.072	0.011	0.006	−0.235 (−0.397, −0.073)	0.005 ab	0.001	0.014	−0.054 (−0.339, 0.231)	0.711	0.835	0.000	0.019 (0.147)
BAS reward	−0.018 (−0.038,0.003)	0.086	0.124	0.005	−0.016 (−0.103, 0.072)	0.727c	0.880	0.000	0.022 (−0.132, 0.176)	0.779	0.676	0.000	0.000 (0.028)
BAS drive	−0.030 (−0.052,−0.007)	0.010	0.022	0.012	0.088 (−0.010, 0.186)	0.078c	0.059	0.005	0.032 (−0.139, 0.202)	0.717	0.985	0.000	0.016 (0.022)
BAS fun seeking	0.022 (0.000,0.043)	0.045	0.667	0.007	0.013 (−0.080, 0.106)	0.789b	0.328	0.000	0.015 (−0.148, 0.179)	0.855	0.684	0.000	0.002 (0.086)

Regression model including chronotype, sleep quality and sleep duration as predictors and measures of physical and mental health and psychological wellbeing as dependent variables. Chronotype is measured as the total score of the Morningness‐Evenigness Questionnaire (MEQ) where higher score indicates greater morning preference. Sleep quality is measured as the global score from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), where a higher score indicates poorer sleep quality. Sleep duration is measured as the average sleep period time across work days and free days from the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire (MCTQ) where an increasing score indicates a longer sleep duration (see methods). Higher scores of general psychiatric health (measured by the General Health Questionnaire) indicate poorer health, whilst lower scores in physical and mental health as measured by the 36‐Item Short‐Form Health Survey (SF‐36) indicate poorer health outcomes. For the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) higher scores indicate greater endorsement of the eating behaviour, for the Big Five Inventory (BFI) a higher score indicates the stronger presence of a personality trait, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) higher scores indicate greater positive or negative engagement with the environment, and for the Behavioural Inhibition and Approach systems questionnaire (BIS‐BAS) lower scores indicate a greater drive through the anticipation of either punishment or reward. Second p value indicates significance after controlling for additional covariates: sex, age, ethnicity, work status, gross income, marital status and alcohol consumption. P values in bold indicate significant effects (p < .05). Superscript letters represent whether statistically corrected p‐values were significant when using other measures than PSQI global score as sleep quality indicators: ^aInsomnia Severity Index (ISI) total score; ^bPSQI single sleep quality question (a 4‐point Likert scale ‐ ‘During the past month, how would you rate your sleep quality overall?’); ^cKarolinska Sleep diary (KSD) single sleep quality question (a 9‐point Likert scale ‐ ‘How would you rate your quality of sleep?’ – referring to the last night). According to Cohen's (1988) guidelines f² ≥ 0.02, f² ≥ 0.15, and f² ≥ 0.35 represent small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively.