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. 2024 Oct 14;15:365. doi: 10.1186/s13287-024-03936-5

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — EVs from different dental tissue-derived stem cells used for dental tissue regeneration. EVs from different dental tissue-derived stem cells are mostly studied and utilized for dental tissue regeneration due to their multi-lineage differentiation and reproductive activity. EVs from different dental tissue-derived stem cells are mostly studied and utilized for dental tissue regeneration due to their multi-lineage differentiation and reproductive activity. Dental follicle progenitor cells are sourced from the connective tissue surrounding the developing tooth germ. Stem cells from the apical papilla are obtained from the apical papilla of incompletely developed teeth. Gingival mesenchymal stem cells are found within the gingiva. Stem cells from exfoliated deciduous teeth are harvested from the dental pulp of exfoliated primary teeth. Alveolar bone-derived mesenchymal stem cells can be extracted from the alveolar bone. Dental pulp stem cells are isolated from the dental pulp of permanent teeth. Periodontal ligament stem cells are sourced from the periodontal ligament of permanent teeth