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. 2024 Oct 14;15:365. doi: 10.1186/s13287-024-03936-5

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — The mode of action of extracellular vesicles in promoting different dental tissue regeneration. a EVs derived from DPSCs specifically activate endogenous EC autophagy by transferring TUFM, thereby causing angiogenesis. The acceleration of vascular reconstruction promotes dental pulp regeneration. This figure is adapted and is freely accessible from reference [81], Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). b EVs derived from DPSCs under an inflammatory microenvironment participate in the regulating of odontogenic and osteogenic differentiation by miR-758-5p/LMBR1/BMP2/4 axis. This figure is adapted and is freely accessible from reference [99], Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). c EVs derived from GMSCs under inflammation microenvironment enhance M2-type macrophage polarization and prevent periodontal bone loss. This figure is adapted and is freely accessible from reference [39], Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Abbreviations: EC, endothelial cells; hDPSC, human dental pulp stem cells; TUFM, Tu translation elongation factor, mitochondrial; TFEB, transcription factor EB; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; ANG2, angiotensin 2; hDPSC-apoVs, apoptotic vesicles from human dental pulp stem cells; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; LMBR1, limb development membrane protein 1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α; DPSC-EV, EVs from dental pulp stem cells; iDPSC-EVs, EVs from dental pulp stem cells under inflammatory environment; PDLSC, periodontal ligament stem cells