| 1. |
Angola |
Clinical, serological, and DNA testing in Bengo Province, Angola further reveals low filarial endemicity and opportunities for disease elimination |
≥ 15 years old |
615 males (38.1%) and 1001 females (61.9%) |
Middle-income communities |
Rural - sub-urban areas |
Average educated |
1616 individuals |
None of the 1616 individuals surveyed in this study tested positive for LF antigen or by real-time PCR. In 16 localities, however, 1.7% had lymphedema and/or hydrocoele. |
[10] |
| Rapid integrated clinical survey to determine prevalence and codistribution patterns of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis in a Loa loa co-endemic area: The Angolan experience |
≥ 15 years old |
761 males (37.9%) and 1246 females (62.1%) |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
1558 individuals |
None tested positive for LF infections among participants, except 1,7% of individuals who had lymphedema. |
[30] |
| 2. |
DRC |
Risk factors for lymphatic filariasis in two villages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo |
≥ 5 years |
383 males (46.7%) |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
1290 participants |
The risk factor increased with age. Prevalence was higher in older poor males (46,1%) than in females. |
[17] |
| Filarial Antigenemia and Loa loa Night Blood Microfilaremia in an Area Without Bancroftian Filariasis in the Democratic Republic of Congo |
≥ 14 years old |
Randomized |
Low-income community |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
2,724 subjects |
Positive ICT tests indicated the presence of filarial antigenemia and mf in 28 of 30 villages. |
[24] |
| Lymphatic filariasis in the Democratic Republic of Congo; micro-stratification overlap mapping (MOM) as a prerequisite for control and surveillance. |
≥ 2 years old |
- |
Middle-income communities |
Urban population |
Average to well-educated |
1290 participants |
The findings suggest that the prevalence of LF appeared to vary within regions and across the country |
[31] |
| 3. |
Malawi |
Lymphatic filariasis morbidity mapping: a comprehensive examination of lymphedema burden in Chikwawa district, Malawi |
22-90 years old |
70% (48/69) were female and 30% (21/69) male |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Little-Basic education |
76 participants |
42% of the participants had lymphedema, reporting double figures compared to the previous years during the official MDA reports. |
[22] |
| Lymphatic filariasis in Lower Shire, Southern Malawi |
>15 years old |
A total of 241 (138 males, 103 females) and 296 (139 males, 157 females) individuals were examined clinically and for mf in Nchacha 18 and Belo, respectively. |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
48 villages (24 in each district) and 2431 households |
Overall, In the two villages, 181% and 222% of people tested positive for microfilariae, and 63% and 66% tested positive for CFA, indicating a high prevalence of LF in the Lower Shire area of Malawi |
[32] |
| Identification of the vectors of lymphatic filariasis in the Lower Shire Valley, southern Malawi. |
> 15 years old |
Randomized |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
54 houses |
Anopheles gambiae s.str. had the highest infection rates with all filarial stages and infective L3 larvae, followed by A. arabiensis and A. funestus.
|
[33] |
| The geographical distribution of lymphatic filariasis infection in Malawi |
≥ 15 years old |
Female excess (64%) among the study participants |
Low-mid income communities |
Semi-urban areas |
Low- to average education |
2913 individuals |
Based on ICT results, 9.2% of people tested positive for circulating filarial antigen (CFA). Males tested positive at a higher rate than females (11.0% versus 8.2%). However, the survey was not mapped out. |
[34] |
| Sentinel surveillance of Lymphatic filariasis, Schistosomiasis, Soil-transmitted helminths and Malaria in rural Southern Malawi |
≥ 5 years old |
50/50 |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
1, 903 individuals |
LF prevalence rates were lower than expected in all sentinel sites. Surveys utilizing a quick diagnostic antigen test reported a higher frequency of 30% in Chikwawa compared to 2.1% elsewhere. |
[35] |
| Quantifying the physical and socio-economic burden of filarial lymphedema in Chikwawa District, Malawi |
> 18 years old |
Female (70%) and 21 were male (30%) |
Low-high income communities |
Rural communities |
Less-average income communities |
69 individuals |
The 69 individuals' mean overall disability score was 13.9, with a range of 8 to 34. There was no significant difference by sex, disease stage, frequency of ADLA, or duration of ADLA. |
[36] |
| Quantifying filariasis and malaria control activities in relation to lymphatic filariasis elimination: a multiple intervention score map (MISM) for Malawi |
- |
Randomized |
Low-mid income communities |
Rural communities |
Less-average education |
54 communities surveyed |
This study's findings illustrate that the LF intervention program has successfully reached a considerable part of the population with MDA, with MISM covering most regions. |
[37] |
| Randomized controlled clinical trials of increased dose and frequency of albendazole and ivermectin on Wuchereria bancrofti microfilarial clearance in Northern Malawi |
18-55 years old |
Randomized |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
1851 individuals |
After 12 months, both the normal MDA treatment and the experimental arms had high levels of microfilarial clearance, with additional clearance in all arms at 24 months. |
[38] |
| Measuring the physical and economic impact of filarial lymphedema in Chikwawa district, Malawi: a case-control study |
Mean age of 58 and 55 years old, respectively |
8 (26%) pairs were male and 23 (74%) pairs were female |
Low-mid income communities |
Semi-urban areas |
Low- to average education |
31 cases |
Results showed that, Of the 31 cases, 26% of males had lymphedema compared to 23.1% of females and the mean age of affected individuals was 58 and 55, respectively. The majority had lymphedema in one leg. |
[39] |
| Significant improvement in quality-of-life following surgery for hydrocoele caused by lymphatic filariasis in Malawi: A prospective cohort study |
≥ 18 years old |
326 males |
Low-income communities |
Rural-urban communities |
Basic education |
326 males participants |
Following surgery, approximately half of the men reported some pain/discomfort (55.9%), swelling (8.6%), bleeding (3.3%), and infection (5.9%), the majority of which had disappeared by 3-months, when most substantial improvements in their quality of life were discovered. |
[40] |
| Lymphatic filariasis in the Karonga district of northern Malawi: a prevalence survey |
> 25% of adults |
685 adult males; 769 adult females |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
1,454 individuals |
Results reveal a wider spread of W. bancrofti infections than previously reported. |
[41] |
| Elimination of lymphatic filariasis as a public health problem in Malawi |
Children aged 6-7 years; adults > 40 years |
Randomized |
Low socio-economic class |
Urban and rural areas across the 26 endemic districts nationwide |
Mixed |
Residents of 54 communities |
Malawi successfully eliminated lymphatic filariasis (LF) as a public health problem in 2020 through the nationwide implementation of WHO's mass drug administration and morbidity management strategies. Challenges included the need for enhanced surveillance in low prevalence areas and addressing the large clinical burden, especially hydrocoele cases requiring surgery. 8,856 clinical LF cases were identified through extensive mapping, with most cases in three highly endemic districts. Post-elimination, sustained funding and partnerships are needed for surveillance, and patient care integration into health systems. The experience provides a model for other countries, and more research is recommended, especially in the post-elimination phase. |
[42] |
| The national distribution of lymphatic filariasis cases in Malawi using patient mapping and geostatistical modeling |
Male: hydrocoele: 50.5 years; lymphedema: 54.4 years; with both conditions: 58.8 years. Female: lymphedema: 50.5 years. |
Male: hydrocoele: 71.5%; lymphedema: 9.6%; both conditions: 1.0%. Female: lymphedema: 17.9% |
Low to high-income |
Both urban and rural areas. |
Mixed |
29,794 individuals (with a 95% credible interval of 26,957 to 32,927). |
Geostatistical modeling estimated a total of 29,794 LF clinical cases, with 70.3% of cases in unmapped areas and 29.7% in mapped areas. The highest burden of LF was found in Chikwawa and Nsanje districts in the Southern Region and Karonga district in the Northern Region. The study highlights the importance of using existing LF antigenemia prevalence and clinical case data along with modeling approaches for resource allocation and long-term health strategies. |
[43] |
| 4. |
Mozambique |
Multiplex serology for impact evaluation of bed net distribution on burden of lymphatic filariasis and four species of human malaria in Nnorthern Mozambique |
≥ 1 year old |
Randomized |
Low income |
Semi-rural community |
Average |
1,320 individuals and 367 households per district |
There was no statistically significant difference between the mosquito-causing malaria burden and the LF prevalence during the study. |
[7] |
| 5. |
Tanzania |
Safety and Tolerability of Ivermectin and Albendazole Mass Drug Administration in Lymphatic Filariasis Endemic Communities of Tanzania: A Cohort Event Monitoring Study |
≥ 5 years old |
Males and females |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
10,000 individuals |
The study reported treatment-associated adverse effects to be significantly higher among those who had pre-existing clinical conditions than those without. |
[2] |
| Management of Patients with Lymphedema Caused by Filariasis in Northeastern Tanzania: Alternative approaches |
≥ 18 years old |
- |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
46 (with 59 lymphedematous legs) |
There was no statistically significant difference between those treated at the hospital and those receiving alternative treatment support. |
[9] |
| Change in composition of the Anopheles gambiae complex and its possible implications for the transmission of malaria and lymphatic filariasis in north-eastern Tanzania |
- |
- |
Self-employment |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
- |
Anopheles gambiae complex had changed from being abundant to being rare, whilst An. arabiensis has changed from being the most rare to being the most abundant, which will have substantial implications for the epidemiology and control of malaria and lymphatic filariasis in the study area. |
[15] |
| Urban lymphatic filariasis in the metropolis of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania |
≥ 5 years old |
- |
Low-income communities |
Semi-rural periphery |
Basic education |
3655 community members |
Despite haphazard urbanization, the study found a significant reduction in the burden of LF infection. |
[16] |
| Lymphatic filariasis control in Tanzania: infection, disease perceptions, and drug uptake patterns in an endemic community after multiple rounds of mass drug administration. |
10-95 years old |
Male to female ratio was 0.8 |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Little to no education |
1072 individuals |
Poor people were the most affected. There was no statistically significant difference in drug uptake between those affected and who view LF infections as a health problem with those affected, but do not view LF as a health problem. |
[18] |
| Lymphatic filariasis elimination status: Wuchereria bancrofti infections in human populations and factors contributing to continued transmission after seven rounds of mass drug administration in Masasi District, Tanzania. |
≥ 15 years old |
63.6% (375/590) were female. |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
590 participants |
The study reported a statistically significant decline in the prevalence of Wb infections. However, the prevalence of antigenemia remains above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation threshold of 2%. |
[19] |
| Lymphatic filariasis transmission in Rufiji District, Southeastern Tanzania: infection status of the human population and mosquito vectors after twelve rounds of mass drug administration. |
10-79 years old |
The overall male-to-female ratio was 1.3 |
Low to middle-income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
854 participants |
Males were more infected than females, with 25 individual men having hydrocele. Infections were much higher in those who had not previously participated in any drug administration programs. |
[20] |
| Prevalence and Correlates of Lymphatic Filariasis Infection and Its Morbidity Following Mass Ivermectin and Albendazole Administration in Mkinga District, Northeastern Tanzania |
≥ 14 years old |
2045 males (49.7%) |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
4115 individuals |
The results revealed reductions in mf infections from individuals who followed the MDA programs. |
[21] |
| Lymphatic filariasis control in Tanga Region, Tanzania: status after eight rounds of mass drug administration |
≥ 1 year old |
Randomized |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
400 individuals |
The study reported a statistically significant decrease in mf infections after eight rounds of MDA. |
[23] |
| Factors Influencing Drug Uptake during Mass Drug Administration for Control of Lymphatic Filariasis in Rural and Urban Tanzania. |
≥ 15 years old |
Females (64.2%); males (35.8%) |
Low-to-middle-income communities |
Rural and urban communities |
Basic to average education |
4053 community members |
Individual views and practices in the target population were less important than easily modifiable provider-related factors in drug uptake. |
[26] |
| Acute adenolymphangitis due to bancroftian filariasis in Rufiji district, southeast Tanzania |
≥ 10 years old |
Males 1234; Females 1766 |
Low to middle-income |
Rural community |
Mixed |
4576 individuals |
Chronic filariasis was found in 3.1% (141) of the population. Individuals with lymphedema were more likely to have ADL attacks than the general population. ADL incidents were more common in people over the age of 40. |
[44] |
| Urban lymphatic filariasis in the city of Tanga, Tanzania, after seven rounds of mass drug administration |
≥ 10 years old |
Girl to boy ratio 0.9 |
Middle-income communities |
Urban arias |
Average to well-educated |
1246 participants |
The findings suggested a small decrease in infections among urban students. In contrast, no significant differences were observed in students from rural locations. Thus, the study corroborated the tendency of an inverse association between LF prevalence and transmission and socioeconomic levels, which has been shown in numerous studies in both urban and rural settings. |
[45] |
| Lymphatic Filariasis Control in Tanzania: Effect of Repeated Mass Drug Administration with Ivermectin and Albendazole on Infection and Transmission |
≥ 1 year old |
Male to female ratio was 0.96 |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
1,112 individuals |
The study reported a statistically significant decrease in microfilaria (mf) infections after MDA. |
[46] |
| Evidence of continued transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti and associated factors despite nine rounds of ivermectin and albendazole mass drug administration in Rufiji district, Tanzania. |
6-9 years old |
35.2% males; 64.8% females |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
413 children |
Despite nine rounds of MDA, the findings show that LF transmission has persisted in the Rufiji district. |
[47] |
| Prevalence of Lymphatic Filariasis and Treatment Effectiveness of Albendazole/ Ivermectin in Individuals with HIV Coinfection in Southwest-Tanzania. |
0-9 years old |
51% females |
Low-mid income communities |
Semi-urban areas 3 |
Low- to average education |
2104 individuals |
LF prevalence was higher in males (26%) than in females (23.1%). In a high-prevalence location for both diseases, no difference in the initial prevalence of lymphatic filariasis was detected between HIV-infected and uninfected persons. |
[48] |
| Applying a mobile survey tool for assessing lymphatic filariasis morbidity in Mtwara Municipal Council of Tanzania |
≥ 18 years old |
37.0% of those opted-in, 384 male and 108 female) people completed the survey |
Low-income community |
Semi-urban community |
Average educated |
8,759 participants |
For lymphedema and hydrocele, the proportion of patients reporting identical symptoms among friends and family was 66.0% and 70.9%, respectively. The data indicated that mobile phone-based surveys are a feasible method of conducting morbidity surveys. |
[49] |
| Lymphatic filariasis, infection status in Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles species after six rounds of mass drug administration in Masasi District, Tanzania. |
- |
- |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
247 993 community members |
After twelve rounds of MDA, the infection rate in this district was four times greater than the previously reported infection rate of 0.1% in Rufji district. |
[50] |
| Prevalence and management of filarial lymphedema and its associated factors in Lindi district, Tanzania: A community-based cross-sectional study. |
≥ 18 years old |
(56%) females, |
Low income |
Rural community |
Primary education |
954 community members |
Nearly 50% of the participants had lymphedema and individuals above 50 years old were the most affected. |
[51] |
| Lymphatic filariasis patient identification in a Large Urban Area of Tanzania: An application of a community-led health system |
≥ 15 years old |
Prevalence per 100,000 total population (per 100,000 males and females) |
High-income communities |
Urban communities |
Well educated |
6889 patients |
The prevalence of LF cases indicated a much higher the burden of LE and hydrocoele in Dar es Salaam than anticipated for an urban center, with 2251 patients reported to have LF, 4169 patients reported to have hydrocoele plus a further 469 patients having both conditions. The prevalence of LF was approximately equal between males and females in all three districts |
[52] |
| Association between Mannose-Binding Lectin Polymorphisms and Wuchereria bancrofti Infection in two Communities in North-Eastern Tanzania |
≥ 1-70 years old |
51 males and females 53 |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
104 individuals |
The findings showed that. Among the 82 individuals who were mf negative in 1975, 50 (61.0%) were CFA negative in 2006, whereas among the 22 individuals who were MF positive in 1975, 20 (90.9%) were CFA positive in 2006. |
[53] |
| Increased HIV Incidence in Wuchereria bancrofti Microfilaria Positive Individuals in Tanzania |
14 to 90 years old |
170 (48.6%) females |
Low to middle income |
Rural to semi-urban communities |
Less to average educated |
350 individuals |
12 (3.4%) tested positive for Wb microfilaria chitinase, with 9/170 (5.3%) positive results for samples from female participants and 3/180 (1.7%) from male participants. |
[54] |
| Community Participation in the Mass Drug Administration and their Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices on Management of Filarial Lymphedema in Lindi District, Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Study |
18 to 87 years old |
Female (56%) |
Low to high income |
Semi-urban to urban communities |
Average to highly educated |
954 study participants |
83.9% reported having participated in the previous MDA rounds with more than three-quarters of them (78.5%) participated in ≤ 5 rounds while 21.5% participated in ≥ 6 rounds since the launching of the LF elimination program. |
[55] |
| A step towards the elimination of Wuchereria
bancrofti in Southwest Tanzania 10 years after mass drug administration with Albendazole and Ivermectin |
14 to 65 years old |
654 (50.3%) females |
Low to middle income |
Rural to semi-urban communities |
Less to average educated |
1299 participants |
The results indicated a reduction in the prevalence of lymphatic filariasis from 35.1% in 2009 to 27.7% in 2019 after seven years of treatment among the 14-65-year-olds. An additional three years of treatment further demonstrated a 1.7% reduction in LF prevalence. |
[56] |
| A 22-year follow-up study on lymphatic filariasis in Tanzania: Analysis of immunological responsiveness in relation to long-term infection pattern |
34-74 years old |
Males (26)/females (45) |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less to average educated |
71 individuals |
The finding showed no significant differences in infections after 22 years with 61 (85.9%) of the study individuals having the same infection status in 1975 and 1996. |
[57] |
| Soil-transmitted helminths and scabies in Zanzibar, Tanzania following mass drug administration for lymphatic filariasis - a rapid assessment methodology to assess the impact |
≥ 5 years |
Randomized |
High income |
Urban communities |
Highly educated |
34 815 cases |
The findings indicated a 90-98% decline in soil-transmitted helminths and a 68-98% decline in scabies infections |
[58] |
| Current Epidemiological Assessment of Bancroftian Filariasis in Tanga Region, Northeastern Tanzania |
≥ 5 years old |
65.1% (307) males; 34.9% (165) females. |
Low to high income |
Rural to urban communities |
Less to highly educated |
472 individuals |
The results revealed reductions in mf infections from individuals who followed the MDA program. However, there is clear evidence of ongoing transmission despite the eight rounds of MDA |
[59] |
| Cross-sectional relationship between HIV, lymphatic filariasis and other parasitic infections in adults in coastal Northeastern Tanzania |
18-70 years old |
517 (57%) females |
Low to high income |
Rural to urban communities |
Less to highly educated |
907 individuals |
The results showed no relationship between HIV, lymphatic filariasis and other parasitic infections |
[60] |
| Lymphatic filariasis elimination efforts in Rufiji, Southeastern Tanzania: decline in circulating filarial antigen prevalence in young school children after twelve rounds of mass drug administration and utilization of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets |
6 and 9 years old |
236 (57.1%) were female and 177 (42.9%) |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
413 children |
The results indicated a reduction in W. bancrofti CFA in young school Children after 12 rounds of MDA |
[61] |
| 6. |
Zambia |
Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Status: Wuchereria bancrofti (Wb) Infections in Human Populations after Five Effective Rounds of Mass Drug Administration (MDA) in Zambia |
≥ 2 years old |
(59%) females and (41%) males. |
Low to high-income communities |
Rural to urban communities |
Mixed |
47,235 participants (148 sites) |
The survey found that Wb prevalence was higher in females than in males and the infections increased with the increase in the age of participants. Furthermore, the program’s elimination status falls short of the target of 0.0 infections by 2%. |
[1] |
| Lymphatic filariasis in Luangwa District, South-East Zambia |
≥ 15 years old |
Females (51.4%); males (48.6%) |
Poor to low-income communities |
Rural neighboring communities |
Less educated |
The study communities had 205 registered households |
The prevalence of LF was slightly higher in males than in females and the infections increased with the increase in age. |
[6] |
| Health beliefs and health-seeking behavior towards lymphatic filariasis morbidity management and disability prevention services in Luangwa District, Zambia: Community and provider perspectives |
18-50 |
50/50 |
Low income |
Rural communities |
Less educated |
237 individual cases |
The disease was well-known by the community members. The signs and symptoms of LF infection were well described by the community, except for the cause of it. The majority believe that it was caused by animal feces and witchcraft and traditional healers were more equipped to treat the infection than medical doctors. |
[8] |
| How community engagement strategies shape participation in mass drug administration programs for lymphatic filariasis: The case of Luangwa District, Zambia |
≥ 18 years old |
- |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
69 participants |
The study noted that participation is greater from already existing structural groupings and the church commanded the largest group willing to participate when called through religious leaders. |
[25] |
| Significant decline in lymphatic filariasis associated with nationwide scale-up of insecticide-treated nets in Zambia |
≥ 15 years old |
Randomized |
Low to high-income communities |
Rural to urban communities |
Less to high education levels |
10,995 individuals |
This study highlighted a significant decrease in LF prevalence across the country as well as the consistent growth in mass drug administration coverage. |
[27] |
| Mapping the Geographical Distribution of Lymphatic Filariasis in Zambia |
12-96 Years old |
6376 females; 3585 males |
Low-high income communities |
Rural-urban communities |
Less-high educated |
10193 volunteers |
Positive CFA cases were found at 84 (77.8%) of the surveyed locations, with prevalence ranging from 1.0 to 53.9%. The frequency was 5% in 49 sites and 15% in 14. |
[62] |
| 7. |
Zimbabwe |
Multiplex peptide microarray profiling of antibody reactivity against neglected tropical diseases derived B-cell epitopes for serodiagnosis in Zimbabwe |
≥ 11 years old |
49.1% males |
Low income |
Rural community |
Less educated |
170 participants |
Peptide microarray technology showed positive results for Wb, indicating the presence of a parasite thought not to exist in Zimbabwe. |
[12] |
| Spotlight on lymphatic filariasis and trachoma in Zimbabwe: Assessing baseline data for control program development. |
≥ 14 years old |
Randomized |
Low-income communities |
Rural communities |
Less-basic education |
Six hundred and fifty (650) participants |
The study findings indicated that LF and trachoma are still poorly understood in Zimbabwe. The inclusion of vernacular words for the diseases' symptoms, on the other hand, suggests the presence of LF and trachoma in these places. |
[63] |
