Table 4.

Biomarkers for prognostication in spinal cord injury.

Biomarker	Mechanism of Action/Description
Interleukin-6, 10 [69]	IL-6 promotes inflammation and hinders remyelination IL-10 has anti-inflammatory effects that regulate the immune response
Neuropeptide FF [70]	Predicts cognitive decline in previously healthy patients after acute SCI
Liver Function Tests [70]	Proposed as prognostic biomarkers for SCI outcomes
RNA Biomarkers [71]	RNA biomarkers reflect gene expression changes during states of inflammation, cell death, and tissue repair, with potential for monitoring SCI progression
Proteomic CSF Analysis [67]	Identified 12 potential protein biomarkers in rat models; may aid in diagnosis and prognosis or as therapeutic targets
Rho Pathway [72]	Controls neuronal responses to growth-inhibitory proteins post-CNS injury, relevant for SCI
Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) and S100B [73]	NSE and S100B are associated with neuronal damage and glial activation; elevated levels in CSF indicate injury severity and ongoing neurological impairment