Table 6.

Neurostimulation therapies and motor function assessment in spinal cord injury.

Therapy/Assessment	Mechanism of Action/Therapeutic Effects
Transcranial Stimulation [92]	Visual illusions reduced neuropathic pain in SCI patients
Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation [93]	Combined with a drug, it enabled voluntary motor function in paralyzed patients, possibly by reactivating dormant motor pathways
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) and Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) [94]	Both provided similar anti-spasticity effects and are potential therapeutic options
Electrical Stimulation for Neurogenic Bowel [95]	A systematic review found insufficient evidence for the efficacy of transcutaneous, transrectal, sacral nerve, or intravesical stimulation in treating neurogenic bowel dysfunction
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) [96]	Shown to improve motor function performance in SCI patients
Electromyography (EMG) + TMS [88,89,90]	Used to track motor function recovery and evaluate abdominal muscle integrity, leading to the development of the “trunk control test”, predictive of independence and ambulation