Figure 9.

Schematic image of the anti-cancer mechanisms of pDNA and mRNA therapeutics. pDNA is delivered to the nucleus and replicated or transcribed by enzymes to synthesize RNA with therapeutic effects, such as gRNA, pre-mRNA, or shRNA, depending on the genes inserted. Pre-mRNA and shRNA are post-transcriptionally processed by enzymes into mRNA and siRNA, respectively, and transported out of the nucleus. mRNA is transported into the cytoplasm and translated by ribosomes to synthesize the encoded proteins, such as antigens, antibodies, cytokines, tumor suppressor proteins, and Cas9 proteins. The numbers represent (1) expression of a protein with anti-cancer effects, (2) DNA vaccine that induces immunotherapy by expressing an antigen or checkpoint inhibitor, and (3) expression of RNA-based NATs.