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. 2024 Oct 15;14:24084. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-74437-x

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Overview of the ELECTRO optimization process. (A) Spheres with points are formed by considering all possible subsets of consecutive points (sphere size ). The total EPE of all these spheres is . (B) Gradient update for one of the points. (C) The point gets projected back onto the unit sphere. (D) Angular displacement gets clipped if it exceeds . (E) Flowchart of the multi-stage optimization process.

Inline graphic — Overview of the ELECTRO optimization process. (A) Spheres with points are formed by considering all possible subsets of consecutive points (sphere size ). The total EPE of all these spheres is . (B) Gradient update for one of the points. (C) The point gets projected back onto the unit sphere. (D) Angular displacement gets clipped if it exceeds . (E) Flowchart of the multi-stage optimization process.