Career adaptability and work engagement: the roles of person–organization fit and job insecurity

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between employees’ career adaptability and work engagement. Specifically, this study investigates the mediating role of person‒organization fit in the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement as well as the moderating role of job insecurity in this mediating effect.

Methods

We collected data from 248 full-time employees in China and utilized robust statistical techniques to test a moderated mediation model that includes the constructs of career adaptability, person‒organization fit, job insecurity, and work engagement.

Results

Career adaptability is positively related to employees’ work engagement, and person‒organization fit mediates the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement. Job insecurity moderates the mediating effects of person‒organization fit in this context. The relationship between person‒organization fit and work engagement is stronger at low (vs. high) levels of job insecurity.

Conclusion

This research contributes to theory by demonstrating that the mediating effect of person‒organization fit and the moderating effect of job insecurity represent additional explanations of the impact of career adaptability on work engagement.

Introduction

In the contemporary global environment, which is rapidly changing, employees and organizations face multiple new challenges. Employees must adjust their career planning strategies to adapt to this changing environment while simultaneously coping with the instability caused by economic volatility and future uncertainty. For organizations, it is crucial to retain talent and motivate employees. To ensure their ability to remain competitive, organizations must develop innovative strategies to increase employees’ work engagement.

Work engagement, which is defined as a positive, affective-motivational, work-related state of fulfillment experienced by employees that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption [1], is beneficial to individual career successes and organizational outcomes. Employees who are highly engaged at work tend to maintain a positive emotional state, are better able to grasp opportunities at work, and are more likely to generate innovative ideas, engage in innovative activities [2], cope with challenging work environments, exhibit better performance, achieve their career goals [3], and ultimately improve organizational outcomes. Conversely, a lack of work engagement can cause employees to become burned out and makes employees more likely to be unhealthy. Research on the factors that influence work engagement, which thus drive both employee welfare and organizational outcomes, is therefore of both theoretical and practical importance.

The job demands-resources (JD-R) model [3, 4] is the most frequently used theoretical framework in research on the predictors of work engagement. According to the JD-R model, job characteristics can influence employees’ work attitudes and behaviors through two different processes, namely, the health-impairment process and the motivational process, which take job demands and job resources, respectively, as their points of departure and are moderated by job resources and job demands, respectively [4, 5]. Consistent with this framework, job resources have been proven to be the most important predictors of work engagement through motivational processes, whereas job demands have been identified as moderators of this process in many studies [6–9]. However, as job demands and resources may not develop in isolation from other demands and resources, these interactions still require investigation in the context of JD-R theory [4]. Moreover, since few studies have investigated a broad range of variables, in line with the proposals of Bakker & Demerouti [4] and Mazzetti et al. [10], the mechanisms underlying these effects on work engagement across different resource and demand categories require further exploration.

Job resources are defined as physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of a job that are functional with regard to the processes of achieving work goals, reducing job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs, and stimulating personal growth, learning and development [4, 11]. In recent years, based on the work of Mazzetti et al. [10] resources have been divided into six types: personal resources (e.g., resilience), work resources (e.g., task variety), developmental resources (e.g., career perspective), social resources (e.g., coworker support), organizational resources (e.g., organizational justice) and engaging leadership. Furthermore, scholars have called for research on the different effects of various categories of resources, thus broadening the scope of JD-R research. All such categories of resources contribute to work engagement.

Job demands are defined as physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of a job that require sustained physical or psychological effort and are therefore associated with certain physiological or psychological costs [4, 12]. Depending on whether these demands contribute to an individual’s growth and ability to achieve valued goals, they can be categorized as either hindrance job demands or challenge job demands [4, 13]. Challenge job demands can also play a motivational role, while hindrance job demands function mainly by impairing individuals’ health; however, certain issues pertaining to these two types of job demands remain unresolved [4].

In response to our proposal to investigate the interactions associated with JD-R theory and the influence of diverse resource and demand categories on work engagement [4, 10], we focus on three different types of resource and demand variables, namely, career adaptability, person‒organization fit (POF) and job insecurity. Career adaptability is a psychosocial construct that measures the resources available to an individual seeking to cope with current and anticipated tasks, transitions, and traumas associated with their occupational role [14]. POF refers to the degree of perceived compatibility or congruence between the characteristics (such as values, goals, personality traits, and attitudes) of the employee and those (such as culture, climate, values, goals, and norms) of their entire organization [15, 16]. Career adaptability and POF are in line with the definition of resources; that is, they are functional with regard to achieving work goals, reducing job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs, and stimulating personal growth and development [4, 11]. Career adaptability can be viewed as a personal resource. Organizational culture, climate and other relevant factors represent resources that can be obtained from organizations, and POF may be a more appropriate measurement in this context, as those resources usually function more effectively when the characteristics of individuals and organizations are matched [17]. Job insecurity refers to subjective perceptions of individuals’ concern about their ability to maintain their jobs or uncertainty in the environments in which they work [18, 19]. Job insecurity has generally been regarded as a job demand in most JD-R studies [20–22] because such insecurity indicates that more effort is needed to maintain one’s current job and satisfy job demands that require sustained physical or psychological effort and therefore entail certain physiological or psychological costs [4, 12]. However, we argue that job insecurity also entails a decrease in work resources since this factor refers to a loss of job security, which is identified as a job resource in the JD-R model [23, 24].

According to JD-R theory, resources can contribute to work engagement through motivational processes, and job demands can moderate this process [4]. On this basis, we hypothesize that career adaptability positively influences work engagement and that POF mediates this influence, whereas the relationship between POF and work engagement is moderated by job insecurity.

Career adaptability and work engagement

Career adaptability has been as identified as critical to individual work engagement in many cases [25–27]. Most studies on this topic have reported that career adaptability has a significant positive effect on work engagement [28–30], and as a result of such adaptation, work engagement has been shown to be positively associated with career adaptability according to the meta-analysis conducted by Rudolph, Lavigne, and Zacher [27]. In most studies, career construction theory has been used to explain these effects. Nevertheless, certain potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement have been ignored. According to the motivational process associated with the JD-R model [3, 4], both personal and job resources can contribute to work engagement [6–9], a situation which inspires us to elucidate this relationship based on the framework of JD-R theory.

As a personal resource, career adaptability is theoretically linked to work engagement according to the JD-R model through the motivational process because such resources can help maintain employees’ motivation and engagement at work [4]. A meta-analysis of JD-R studies revealed that the effect size of the correlation between personal resources and work engagement was greater than that of the correlation between social resources and job resources [10]. Moreover, career adaptability is supposed to help individuals manage themselves, adapt to expected or unexpected changes, and overcome difficulties achieving their occupational goals [14, 31], which may thereby help them deal with unforeseen events and eliminate distractions quickly. In addition, career adaptability is frequently associated with self-efficacy, optimism and proactivity [14, 32]. Furthermore, confidence and control are dimensions of career adaptability, and these variables are common antecedents of work engagement according to the JD-R model [10].

Hence, on the basis of previous empirical research and theoretical analysis, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1

Career adaptability is positively related to work engagement.

Person‒organization fit as a mediator

Previous researchers [15, 33] have argued that employees’ POF may be an important mediator in the relationship between adaptability and work-related outcomes, as one fundamental question that employees must consider is how they fit within their organization. In turn, a sense of POF is also believed to result in desirable positive work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, occupational commitment, and organizational identity) and behaviors (e.g., organizational citizenship behavior, job performance, and work engagement). From the perspective of JD-R theory, personal resources (e.g., career adaptability) and job resources (e.g., POF) may influence each other and jointly improve both work engagement and performance through motivational processes [4], thus suggesting that POF may play a mediating role in the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement.

POF has been identified as a job resource in several studies. Alfes et al. [34] viewed POF as a job resource because this factor ensures alignment between employees’ values and organizational goals and fulfills employees’ fundamental psychological needs, thus promoting optimal growth and functioning. In a recent study, Sørlie et al. [35] suggested that POF is a crucial resource that can facilitate the accumulation and activation of situational job resources. In line with the classification of resources proposed by Mazzetti et al. [10], we argue that POF should be categorized as an organizational resource because it is the result primarily of organizational mechanisms rather than individual job roles.

In line with the JD-R model [3, 4] and a consensus among previous researchers [15, 33], we propose that career adaptability, as a personal resource, can influence an individual’s POF as an organizational resource. Employees who exhibit higher levels of career adaptability typically possess more open and adaptive personalities and opinions, including in terms of extroversion, agreeableness and openness [36–38], which can enhance their fit with different organizational environments and improve their POF. Soresi, Nota, and Ferrari [39] reported that career adaptability is associated with fewer perceived internal and external barriers due to the resources and broader range of interests it entails, which may indicate that career adaptability can function in a similar way when individuals assess discrepancies and points of incompatibility between themselves and their organizations. Thus, POF may also be the result of adaptation. Individuals engage in adaptation behaviors to improve their fit. Adaptable employees are more likely to be able to adapt and change since they welcome change and know how to obtain advantages from change [40]. When individuals exhibit a high level of career adaptability, they have a wealth of knowledge and skills that can enable them to cope with various changes in the organizational environment [27]. The personal and psychological resources that are embedded in career adaptability can play a notable role in the process of integrating people into organizations, thus increasing the likelihood that employees will establish a good fit between their personal attributes and the characteristics of the organization [41]. Such resources can subsequently facilitate the adjustment of individuals’ behaviors and attitudes in response to changes in the external environment with the goals of establishing a dynamic balance between the individual and the environment and promoting POF. In other words, both an extensive fitness spectrum and the initiative to adapt contribute to the POF of employees who exhibit high levels of career adaptability.

POF has important effects on employees’ behaviors and attitudes [16, 17]. And according to many studies, it is associated with work engagement [42–45]. According to JD-R theory [4], POF promotes employees’ work engagement, as resources enable individuals to achieve their work goals and exhibit personal growth. In addition, POF may influence work engagement through two other pathways. On the one hand, as organizational attributes meet individuals’ intrinsic needs, such as those for self-fulfillment and belonging, employees are more likely to be motivated and to invest more energy and effort into their work [43, 45, 46]. On the other hand, high levels of POF predict high levels of organizational identity and commitment [44, 47], which may encourage employees to devote themselves to organizations as part of their work. Overall, POF is a noteworthy antecedent variable of work engagement.

The established links among career adaptability, POF, and work engagement imply that the effects of career adaptability on work engagement can be explained by reference to the motivational process posited by JD-R theory at both the individual and organizational levels. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2

The relationship between career adaptability and work engagement is mediated by POF.

Job insecurity as a moderator

Job insecurity is a type of job stress that can easily elicit negative emotions, such as anger, depression, and worry [18, 19]. Numerous empirical studies have also shown that the effects of individual characteristics and external environmental factors on employees’ organizational attitudes and behaviors are moderated by job insecurity [48–51]. Kim and Jinsoo [52] reported that job insecurity moderates the relationship between person-job fit and work engagement among hotel employees. Although job insecurity has been verified to serve as a moderator in many cases, the moderating role of job insecurity in the relationship between POF and work engagement, which may reflect the effects of interactions between the macro environment (e.g., the economy) and mesoscopic circumstances (e.g., the organization) on individuals’ work-related outcomes, remains unknown.

In most JD-R studies, job insecurity has been regarded as a hindrance to job demands because such insecurity implies that sustained physical or psychological effort and costs are required to maintain the current level of work while simultaneously impeding goal achievement and personal growth [20–22, 53]. In addition, we argue that job insecurity exhibits dual characteristics and represents a decline in work resources (i.e., job security) because job security has been viewed as a job resource in many cases [23, 24]. The dual characteristics of job insecurity, alongside its connections with individual characteristics, organizational circumstances and the macro environment [54], reflect the complexity of job insecurity according to the JD-R model.

According to JD-R theory, job demands can either facilitate or undermine the motivational process depending on whether they are challenging or hindering, and resources may interact with each other [4]. Specifically, since job insecurity represents a hindrance job demand and leads to resource loss, it may obstruct the positive pathway leading from POF to work engagement for several reasons. First, hindrance job demands, such as job insecurity, can disturb the psychological balance between effort and rewards [21, 55] and thus lead to emotional exhaustion, burnout and counterproductive work behaviors [13, 55, 56], which may impede the motivational process associated with POF. In light of such resource losses, this deficiency in security fails to satisfy employees’ basic needs. It can cause anxiety, worry and even coping behaviors that are harmful to organizations (e.g., bullying or external job search behaviors) [56], which can distract individuals from their work. Furthermore, due to the damages thus caused to the psychological contracts between employers and employees, hindrance job demands and a lack of job resources can reduce both job satisfaction and organizational commitment while simultaneously enhancing employee turnover intention [23, 54], which may weaken the positive effects of POF on work engagement. In summary, certain reasons pertaining to both demands and resources indicate that the motivational process leading from POF to work engagement can be moderated by job insecurity.

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3

Job insecurity moderates the mediating effect of POF. The association between POF and work engagement is weaker among employees who face higher levels of job insecurity but stronger among those who face lower levels of job insecurity.

In summary, the hypothesized moderated mediation model is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

The moderated mediation model

Methods

Sample and procedure

The participants in this research were full-time employees recruited from both the public sector (e.g., public institutions or state-owned enterprises) and private enterprises (e.g., enterprises in the finance, insurance, manufacturing, and internet industries) in Guangdong Province and Sichuan Province, China. All participants were recruited using a convenience sampling approach. To determine the sample size, power analyses were conducted with the assistance of G*Power software. For a medium effect size (0.3), a minimum of 134 participants was required at a significance level of α = 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.90. A total of 280 questionnaires were distributed in this investigation, and 248 valid questionnaires were retained after 32 responses that failed the attention check items were excluded, resulting in a participation rate of 88.57%. To reduce the participants’ suspicion and mitigate social desirability bias, we emphasized the fact that this questionnaire was to be completed anonymously and that the results would be used solely for academic research. The participants were asked to read the instructions carefully and to complete the questionnaire independently. Among the participants who completed the questionnaires, 41.9% were male, and 58.1% were female. The participants’ average age was 27.76 years (SD = 8.03), and their ages ranged from 18 to 65 years. Their average total number of years of work experience was 6.22 (SD = 7.62). With respect to participants’ educational background, 43.1% had obtained a junior college education or below, 47.2% had obtained an undergraduate education, and 9.7% had obtained a master’s-level education or above. In terms of their current position, 78.6% of the participants were ordinary staff, while 21.4% were managers. In terms of their monthly salaries, 54.8% of the participants earned 5000 Chinese yuan (CNY) or less, 33.9% earned between 5001 and 10,000 CNY, and 11.3% earned 10,001 CNY or more.

This research was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of South China Normal University (SCNU-PSY-335). All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 (5). Informed consent was obtained prior to the collection of data from the participants. The data were collected and analyzed anonymously.

Measures

Career adaptability

The participants’ career adaptability was measured using the Chinese version of the career adaptability scale developed by Savickas et al. [14]. This 24-item scale includes four dimensions: concern (e.g., “Thinking about what my future will be like”), control (e.g., “Taking responsibility for my actions”), curiosity (e.g., “Becoming curious about new opportunities”) and confidence (e.g., “Taking care to do things well”). All the items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “1”=“strongly disagree” to “5”=“strongly agree”. The reliability and validity of the Chinese version of this scale have been extensively demonstrated [57, 58]. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.96. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed that the model fit indices were χ²/df = 2.505, CFI = 0.904, TLI = 0.892, RMSEA = 0.078, and SRMR = 0.046.

Person‒organization fit

We used the Chinese version of the POF scale developed by Cable and DeRue [15] to measure employees’ perceived POF. This scale includes 9 items pertaining to three types of perceptions of fit: POF, needs–supplies fit, and demands–abilities fit. The three items pertaining to POF were used in our study. Sample items include “The things that I value in life are very similar to the things that my organization values”. The Chinese version of this scale has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of POF among Chinese employees [59, 60]. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.91.

Job insecurity

We used the validated Chinese version of a quantitative job insecurity scale based on Hellgren et al.’s [61] two-dimensional approach to measure employees’ job insecurity. Sample items include “I am worried about having to leave my job before I would like to”. All the items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “1”=“strongly disagree” to “5”=“strongly agree”. The Chinese version of this scale has been shown to be reliable and valid for investigations of Chinese samples [62, 63]. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.90.

Work engagement

We used the validated Chinese version of the Utrecht work engagement scale, which was developed by Schaufeli et al. [64], to measure work engagement. This scale includes three dimensions: vigor (e.g., “At my work, I feel bursting with energy”), dedication (e.g., “I am enthusiastic about my job”) and absorption (e.g., “I am immersed in my work”). The Chinese version of this scale has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of work engagement among the Chinese population [65, 66]. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.94. A CFA revealed that the model fit indices were χ²/df = 4.146, CFI = 0.955, TLI = 0.933, RMSEA = 0.113, and SRMR = 0.034.

Data analyses

We used SPSS 27.0 software for the descriptive statistics as well as the correlation and reliability analyses. We used Mplus 8.0 software to conduct the CFAs. The moderated mediation model was tested using Hayes’ PROCESS 3.5 macro (Model 14) [67].

Results

Measurement model and common method variance test

We conducted a CFA to test the measurement model for the variables. The results (Table 1) indicated that the one-factor model exhibited a poor fit and that the four-factor model exhibited a better fit than the other models. Thus, these variables included in our hypothesized model featuring scale items for the latent variables could be distinguished empirically. We also used a bifactor model to test the possibility of common method variance. We compared Model 4, which featured four latent factors (i.e., career adaptability, POF, job insecurity, and work engagement), with Model 5, which featured five latent factors (i.e., the four latent factors included in Model 4 as well as an unmeasured latent methods factor). A model comparison revealed that the goodness-of-fit indices of Model 5 (χ²/df = 1.125, CFI = 0.998 TLI = 0.996, RMSEA = 0.022, and SRMR = 0.017) did not exceed those of Model 4 (χ²/df = 1.789, CFI = 0.980, TLI = 0.974, RMSEA = 0.056, and SRMR = 0.038). Thus, common method variance was not a threat to our data. These results suggest that the scales used in this research measured different constructs and could be used in subsequent analyses.

Table 1.

Comparison of the measurement models

Models	χ 2	df	χ 2 /df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	SRMR
1-factor model a	1248.784	65	19.212	0.496	0.395	0.271	0.169
2-factor model b	992.671	64	15.510	0.604	0.518	0.242	0.167
3-factor model c	566.947	62	9.144	0.785	0.729	0.181	0.132
4-factor model d	105.570	59	1.789	0.980	0.974	0.056	0.038
4-factor + method factor	51.755	46	1.125	0.998	0.996	0.022	0.017

Note. ^a All variables were combined into a single factor. ^b career adaptability + POF, work engagement + job insecurity

^c career adaptability, POF, work engagement + job insecurity. ^d Each variable loaded onto a single factor

Descriptive statistics

The results regarding the descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables are shown in Table 2. Career adaptability and work engagement were moderately correlated (r = 0.62, p < 0.001). Accordingly, the stronger employees’ career adaptability is, the higher their level of work engagement. POF was correlated with career adaptability and work engagement (r = 0.38, p < 0.001 and r = 0.37, p < 0.001, respectively). These results were used as the foundation of the subsequent moderated mediation analysis. Employees’ gender, position at work and monthly salary were significantly correlated with the study variables. Thus, we controlled for these variables in our subsequent data analyses.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables

	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. Gender a	0.42	-	1
2. Age	27.76	8.03	0.27***	1
3. Total working years	6.22	7.62	0.27***	0.94***	1
4. Education b	-	-	−0.23***	−0.26***	−0.36***	1
5. Working position c	-	-	0.16*	0.25***	0.30***	−0.11	1
6. Monthly income d	-	-	0.29***	0.08	0.08	0.17**	0.23***	1
7. Career adaptability	3.92	0.57	0.09	0.02	0.05	−0.08	0.19**	0.06	1
8. Person–organization fit	3.38	0.90	−0.03	−0.08	−0.03	0.04	0.05	0.04	0.38***	1
9. Job insecurity	2.49	1.04	0.21**	0.07	0.09	−0.08	−0.08	−0.01	−0.12	−0.10	1
10. Work engagement	3.50	0.81	0.11	0.11	0.12	−0.04	0.23***	0.14*	0.62***	0.37***	−0.11	1

Note N = 248; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. a: 1 = male, 0 = female; b: 1 = junior college education or below, 2 = undergraduate education, 3 = master’s-level education or above; c: 1 = ordinary staff, 2 = manager; d: 1 = no more than 5000 yuan, 2 = 5001—10,000 yuan, 3 = more than 10,001 yuan

The mediating effect of person‒organization fit

First, we constructed a mediation model to test whether POF served as a mediator in the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement.

The results are presented in Table 3. Career adaptability had direct positive effects on work engagement (Model 1: β = 0.60, t = 11.93, p < 0.001) and POF (Model 2: β = 0.39, t = 6.37, p < 0.001). Moreover, POF had a positive effect on work engagement (Model 3: β = 0.16, t = 2.95, p < 0.01), and the direct relationship between career adaptability and work engagement remained significant (Model 3: β = 0.54, t = 10.10, p < 0.001). We used the bootstrap method (bootstrap = 10000) to reveal a positive indirect effect on the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement through POF (indirect effect = 0.06; 95% CI [0.01, 0.13]), in which context the ratio of the mediating effect to the total effect was 9.96%. Thus, Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2 were supported.

Table 3.

Mediation of person–organization fit

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
	DV = WE		DV = POF		DV = WE
	β	t	β	t	β	t
CA	0.60	11.93***	0.39	6.37***	0.54	10.10***
POF					0.16	2.95**
R 2	0.41		0.15		0.43
F	41.80***		10.60***		36.24***

Note N = 248; ***p < 0.001. The model includes all control variables. The effects of the control variables are not displayed. Standardized path estimates are reported. DV = dependent variable; CA = career adaptability, POF = person‒organization fit, WE = work engagement

The moderating effect of job insecurity

Second, we investigated the moderating effect of job insecurity on the relationship between POF and work engagement. We added job insecurity to the model as a moderator and tested this moderated mediation model.

The results are presented in Table 4; Fig. 2. Career adaptability had a positive effect on work engagement (β = 0.52, 95% CI [0.42, 0.63]), POF had a positive effect on work engagement (β = 0.18, 95% CI [0.07, 0.28]), and the interaction effect of POF and job insecurity on work engagement was significant (β = −0.11, 95% CI [− 0.19, − 0.03]). Accordingly, the relationship between POF and work engagement is moderated by job insecurity.

Table 4.

Moderation of job insecurity

	Model 1 (POF)					Model 2 (WE)
	β	SE	LLCI	ULCI		β	SE	LLCI	ULCI
CA	0.39	0.06	0.27	0.50		0.52	0.05	0.42	0.63
JI						−0.02	0.05	−0.12	0.08
POF						0.18	0.05	0.07	0.28
POF×JI						−0.11	0.04	−0.19	−0.03
R 2	0.15					0.45
F	10.60***					27.65***

Note N = 248; ***p < 0.001. The model includes all control variables. The effects of the control variables are not displayed. Standardized path estimates are reported. DV = dependent variable; CA = career adaptability, POF = person‒organization fit, JI = job insecurity, WE = work engagement

Fig. 2.

Interaction plot of the relationship between person–organization fit and work engagement at different levels of job insecurity

A simple slope analysis was performed to examine the moderating effect at various levels of job insecurity. The effect of perceived POF on work engagement was high among employees who exhibited low levels of job insecurity (β = 0. 29, p < 0.001). However, this effect was low among employees who exhibited high levels of job insecurity (β = 0. 07, p > 0.5). Therefore, as job insecurity increases, the relationship between perceived POF and work engagement gradually weakens. The results of a bootstrap test (bootstrap samples = 10000) also revealed that the mediating effect of career adaptability on work engagement through POF was small when the level of job insecurity was one standard deviation above the mean (0.03, 95% CI [− 0.03, 0.10]), whereas the size of this effect was large when the level of job insecurity was one standard deviation below the mean (0.11, 95% CI [0.04, 0.19]). The difference between these two groups was also significant (0.09, 95% CI [0.002, 0.17]). These results imply that job insecurity may change the mediating effect in addition to the effect of POF on work engagement. Employees who exhibit low levels of job insecurity are more likely to increase their work engagement due to the impact of POF. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported.

Discussion

Resources enhance resources: the dynamic process of the JD-R model

The present study revealed that career adaptability is positively related to work engagement. Career adaptability is a psychological resource that can be used to manage career-related tasks, transitions, and traumas; furthermore, it can help individuals solve unforeseen career problems, thus enabling them to adapt to career changes. In response to career dilemmas, individuals who lack career adaptability find it challenging to avoid the interference of difficulties and experience negative emotions, such as anxiety and tension, which prevent them from engaging fully in their current work and thus affect their work engagement [29, 68]. In contrast, higher levels of career adaptability and adaptive strategies help individuals overcome the problems the encounter in their career problems, optimize their work status, and engage fully in their work.

In line with our predictions, POF mediates the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement among Chinese employees. Accordingly, as career adaptability increases, employees perceive more POF, which promotes their work engagement. This finding is interesting because the JD-R model posits that personal and organizational resources influence employees’ work engagement [4, 10] and that career adaptability and perceived POF likely represent different resources that individuals can use to complete their work in the context of career development.

According to career construct theory [14, 69], career development is a contextualized process that is driven by adaptation to various occupational and work-related environments and can ensure the integration of the person with the environment. In this process, career adaptability resources, such as concern, curiosity, control, and confidence, can play a joint role in guiding employees’ thinking, reflections, and perceptions at work. These resources can subsequently lead to adjustments of behaviors and attitudes on the part of individuals in response to changes in the external environment with the goals of ensuring a dynamic balance between the individual and the environment and promoting POF. When individuals exhibit a high level of career adaptability, they have a wealth of knowledge and skills, which enable them to cope with various changes in the organizational environment [27]. Evidently, these psychological resources, which are embedded in career adaptability, play an essential role in the process of integrating people with organizations, thus increasing the likelihood that employees will establish a good fit between personal attributes and organizational characteristics [41]. Thus, career adaptability is a combination of adaptive strategies and skills that can facilitate POF.

According to POF theory [16, 17], on the basis of interactions between individuals and the environment, employees gradually develop values, abilities, and behaviors that conform to the work requirements of the organization. After the resulting fit reaches a certain level, individuals perceive themselves as united with the organization, which elicits a strong sense of organizational identity and motivation to work and encourages these employees to become more engaged. In addition, the fit between individuals and the organizational environment can reduce the difficulty of communication among organizational members, mitigate possible differences in work and other unfavorable factors, and help individuals focus on organizational goals, thereby increasing their work engagement [70]. In contrast, when employees feel that their values and goals do not fit with the organization or when they perceive a low level of fit, they experience negative emotions such as tension and anxiety, which affect their willingness to engage in work [71]. As an essential personal resource, career adaptability can motivate individuals to cope with career difficulties, promote a balanced relationship between the individual and the organization and improve employees’ work engagement [14, 72].

Bakker and Demerouti [4] proposed that the interactions posited by the JD-R model should be explored in further detail; however, the mechanism underlying these interactions has not been specified thoroughly. Nonetheless, a dynamic model was proposed, according to which resources can interact with each other during the motivational process. The original JD-R model posits that employees are passive and reactive [4]. However, in practice, employees can also be proactive and actively improve their status quo [73, 74]. Employees who have more resources are more likely to be motivated to engage in job crafting, which can increase their resources [4]. Accordingly, we argue that the relationship between career adaptability, as a personal resource, and POF, as an organizational resource, can be the result of job crafting. Furthermore, career adaptability elicits and enhances POF, thus leading to greater work engagement on the part of employees.

This study highlights the critical contributions of career adaptability and POF to employee work engagement by integrating career construct theory with POF theory; it also provides empirical evidence that can enrich the JD-R model.

Resources or demands: the dual characteristics of job insecurity

Although job resources and demands seem to be dissimilar aspects of jobs, direct links can be established between resources and demands under certain circumstances; for example, employees who exhibit higher levels of occupational status or prestige are almost certain both to have access to more resources and to face greater demands [4]. Furthermore, we argue that some variables can be viewed as functioning in a manner similar to resources and demands simultaneously, including job insecurity. As job insecurity implies that employees must exert more effort to maintain their current work, this factor has mostly been regarded as job demand in JD-R studies [20–22, 53]. In contrast, job security has been viewed as a job resource in contexts pertaining to job security [23, 24], despite the fact that job insecurity and job security are indivisible and resemble two sides of a coin. Since job insecurity is definitely accompanied by decreased job security (i.e., job resources) as well as by potential demands for further efforts to preserve work, considering job insecurity to represent both a demand and a factor that can lead to resource loss may be a more appropriate way to capture its characteristics.

Because resources and demands play different roles according to the JD-R model, the dual characteristics of job insecurity indicate that job insecurity may function in diverse ways, such as by increasing or decreasing resources. Recent studies have shown that job insecurity is not only positively related to burnout [75] but also negatively related to work engagement [76]; furthermore, job insecurity moderates both motivational and health-impairment processes [22, 77], thus providing evidence of its dual characteristics. When employees perceive high levels of job insecurity, they experience more powerlessness with regard to changing their job status or controlling their career development. In this context, highly fit employees experience anxiety and powerlessness, have difficulty engaging in their work, and even develop the intention to leave the organization [18, 19]. It is evident that the positive effect of POF on work engagement is weaker under conditions featuring high levels of job insecurity. In contrast, the environment faced by employees who exhibit low levels of job insecurity is more stable and less likely to change. Furthermore, such employees are able to control their work well and encounter fewer obstacles while completing their work tasks, and they can maintain their existing job resources, thus encouraging them to continue investing energy and time in their work; accordingly, in this context, POF is more conducive to employees’ work engagement [18, 54].

Due to the dual characteristics of job insecurity, this factor can play a more extensive role in the JD-R model and may exhibit more complex consequences. Understanding the dual characteristics of job insecurity can help clarify the different positions and effects of job insecurity according to the JD-R model, thus supporting future research. Although the demand- and resource-related aspects of job insecurity have similar effects according to our research, the distinctions between these two aspects still require further exploration, which may help address the contradictory outcomes reported in previous studies of job insecurity.

Theoretical implications

The present study helps extend JD-R theory. Following the proposals of Bakker & Demerouti [4] and Mazzetti et al. [10], we introduced three different types of resources and demands into the model and investigated the interactions among these resources and demands, thereby providing a broader and more systematic perspective on JD-R theory. We proved that POF mediated the pathway leading from career adaptability to work engagement, thus filling the research gap resulting from the fact that few studies have linked career adaptability to work engagement from a JD-R perspective, especially via a pathway leading from personal resources to organizational resources and then to work engagement. Furthermore, we explored the boundary conditions associated with the mediation model and found that the relationship between POF and work engagement can be moderated by job insecurity, which we then argued can be regarded as both a job demand and a factor that leads to the loss of job resources simultaneously. The moderated mediation model was used to test the interactions among different types of resources and thus to provide empirical support for JD-R theory.

The findings of this study contribute to the literature on career adaptability and work engagement. In response to Johnston’s [31] suggestion that other relevant theories can be identified during the development of research questions for career adaptability studies, such as theories in the field of organizational psychology, we drew on JD-R theory to explain the influence of career adaptability on work-related outcomes. Since few studies have interpreted the effects of career adaptability on work engagement by reference to the JD-R model, particularly with respect to the impact paths associated with other types of resources, organizational resources and work resources were included as mediators and moderators in our model, respectively, in accordance with Bakker and Demerouti’s [4] suggestion that personal resources may interact with other resources. The findings of this study thus establish a theoretical foundation on which the internal psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between career adaptability and work engagement as well as the relevant boundary conditions can be understood.

Practical implications

The findings of this research can help organizations understand when and how career adaptability affects employees’ work engagement and help organizations implement career management activities in a targeted and scientific manner, especially in the contemporary, uncertain, and insecure macroenvironment of the postpandemic era. First, according to the results of this study, career adaptability is critical with regard to employees’ work engagement. Organizational leaders should recognize this fact and establish a variety of training and development programs that can improve employees’ career adaptability with the goal of promoting employees’ work engagement. Second, in light of the mediating role played by perceived POF in the relationship between career adaptability and employees’ work engagement, organizations must improve their employees’ understanding of how they can align themselves with the organization’s goals and values in various ways, such as by clarifying the company’s culture, values, and mission. Finally, job resources are undoubtedly helpful with respect to increasing employees’ work engagement, but as this study reveals, the relationship between POF and work engagement is moderated by job insecurity. Therefore, organizations should identify the sources of employees’ job insecurity and respond to those sources themselves to help employees alleviate their job insecurity. Organizational leaders can reduce job insecurity and enhance employees’ work engagement by engaging in transparent communication, thus ensuring the stability of the employment relationship and providing employees with opportunities for career development.

The findings of this study have important practical implications regarding employees’ self-management of career development. Employees should recognize the importance of career adaptability with respect to their career development and engagement and improve their career adaptability by engaging in lifelong learning, focusing on career planning, and participating actively in relevant training. Employees should also take the initiative to understand and integrate themselves into the organization’s culture to ensure that their personal goals are in line with the organization’s goals. Personal and organizational resources have more significant positive impacts on work engagement among employees who exhibit low levels of job insecurity than among employees who exhibit high levels of job insecurity. Therefore, employees must enhance their sense of security and job stability within the organization by establishing good working relationships, improving their performance and professional skills, and exhibiting more positive engagement in their work with the goals of pursuing and achieving personal career success.

Limitations and directions for future research

Despite our contributions to theory and practice, the present study has several limitations that must be addressed in future research. First, our research features a cross-sectional design and thus cannot provide evidence to support claims regarding the causal relationships among the independent, mediator, moderator, and dependent variables. Future researchers can conduct a longitudinal study by taking measurements on at least three time points with the aim of providing more convincing evidence that can support causal inferences regarding the results of this research. Second, participants from Guangdong Province and Sichuan Province were recruited for this study based on a convenience sampling approach; future studies should collect broader and more randomized samples with the goals of replicating these findings across a variety of contexts and cultures as well as verifying the external validity and boundary conditions of our model. Third, all the data used in this study were collected from Chinese employees via self-report methods, and our results may thus be subject to common method variance as well as biases resulting from impression management. Future researchers should combine supervisor assessments with employee self-reports when collecting data to improve the validity of this research. Finally, although we discussed the dynamic process leading from resources to resources as well as the dual characteristics of job insecurity according to the JD-R model, solid empirical evidence on this topic remains inadequate. Future researchers can verify our hypotheses in further detail and perfect the framework of the JD-R model.

Conclusion

This study developed an integrated model of the effect of career adaptability on employee work engagement on the basis of the JD-R theoretical framework. This study also provided strong evidence to support this effect by testing the mediating role of POF and the moderating role of job insecurity in this context. Specifically, the results of this study reveal that career adaptability is positively associated with employees’ work engagement; furthermore, POF mediates this relationship, while job insecurity moderates this mediating effect. These results suggest that personal and organizational resources are key factors that influence employee work engagement, thereby providing empirical support for the dynamic processes posited by the JD-R model and contributing to the relevant literature in the field of organizational psychology. The findings of this study provide valuable guidance for organizations’ efforts to adjust their management strategies, optimize their approaches to talent management, and promote employees’ personal development.

Author contributions

QC and JL contributed to developing the theoretical framework, data analysis, organization, and overall writing of the manuscript. RS, RW, JX, JZ contributed to data analysis, editing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Research Project of Philosophy and Social Science in Guangdong, China (GD22CXL01), the Educational Science Planning Project (Higher Education Special Project) in Guangdong Province, China (2022GXJK176), the Major Planning Project of Philosophy and Social Science of Guangdong Province, China (GD23ZD17), and the Striving for the First-Class, Improving Weak Links and Highlighting Features (SIH) Key Discipline for Psychology in South China Normal University.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of South China Normal University (SCNU-PSY-335). Informed consent was obtained electronically prior to the collection of data from participants. The data were collected and analyzed anonymously.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.