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. 2024 Jul 4;30(10):2813–2820. doi: 10.1038/s41591-024-03134-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Spillover-effects analysis includes individuals with no intervention recipients within 500 m and any intervention recipients within the different distance radii. Data are presented as percentage effectiveness = (1 – RR) × 100%, where RR is the prevalence ratio between study arms. Vertical bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. a, Effects of the chemoprevention intervention (rfMDA versus RACD; n individuals 1 km, 245; 2 km, 435; 3 km, 367). b, Effects of the vector-control intervention (RAVC versus no RAVC; n individuals 1 km, 245; 2 km, 435; 3 km = 367). c, Effects of the combined intervention (rfMDA and RAVC versus RACD only; n individuals 1 km, 98; 2 km, 261; 3 km, 242). Effects on prevalence were estimated with TMLE using individual-level data; standard errors were adjusted for clustering at the enumeration-area level. Models were adjusted for covariates that were screened separately for each model using a likelihood ratio test. Models were unadjusted within strata of the intervention and outcome because there were fewer than 30 observations.