Table 2.

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) results for cortical thickness measures.

Brain lobes	Brain regions	Significance level in ANCOVA pFDR			Cohen’s d: rural–urban (d [95% CI])			Cohen’s d: normal-impaired (d [95% CI])
		Residency status	Impairment status	Interaction	All participants	Normal participants	Impaired participants	All participants	Rural participants	Urban participants
Temporal	Left Entorhinal		4.96E-02					0.46 [0.14, 0.78]	0.23 [−0.24, 0.70]	0.61 [0.17, 1.04]
	Left Fusiform
	Left Parahippocampal
	Left Temporalpole	3.13E-02			−0.50 [−0.82, −0.18]	−0.88 [−1.32, −0.43]	−0.10 [−0.56, 0.37]
	Left Bankssts	2.83E-03			0.60 [0.28, 0.92]	0.53 [0.09, 0.96]	0.72 [0.24, 1.19]
	Left Inferiortemporal	3.80E-02			−0.47 [−0.79, −0.15]	−0.63 [−1.07, −0.19]	−0.29 [−0.75, 0.18]
	Left Middletemporal		1.54E-02					0.56 [0.24, 0.87]	0.27 [−0.20, 0.74]	0.77 [0.33, 1.21]
	Left Superiortemporal		4.13E-02					0.48 [0.16, 0.80]	0.16 [−0.31, 0.62]	0.74 [0.30, 1.18]
	Left Transversetemporal
Frontal	Left Caudalmiddlefrontal	2.65E-03			0.58 [0.26, 0.90]	0.31 [−0.12, 0.74]	0.95 [0.46, 1.44]
	Left Lateralorbitofrontal	2.00E-03			−0.66 [−0.98, −0.34]	−0.95 [−1.40, −0.50]	−0.36 [−0.83, 0.11]
	Left Medialorbitofrontal		4.09E-02					0.49 [0.17, 0.80]	0.15 [−0.32, 0.62]	0.80 [0.35, 1.23]
	Left Parsorbitalis
	Left Parsopercularis			3.26E-02	0.20 [−0.12, 0.51]	−0.20 [−0.63, 0.23]	0.71 [0.23, 1.18]	0.44 [0.12, 0.75]	−0.05 [−0.51, 0.42]	0.83 [0.38, 1.27]
	Left Parstriangularis
	Left Rostralmiddlefrontal	8.13E-03			0.51 [0.19, 0.83]	0.44 [0.00, 0.87]	0.64 [0.16, 1.11]
	Left Superiorfrontal
	Left Frontalpole
	Left Paracentral
	Left Precentral
Parietal	Left Inferiorparietal	1.35E-04			0.76 [0.43, 1.08]	0.79 [0.35, 1.23]	0.76 [0.28, 1.24]
	Left Postcentral	1.50E-06			0.90 [0.57, 1.23]	0.65 [0.21, 1.09]	1.29 [0.77, 1.79]
	Left Precuneus	5.54E-05	1.77E-02		0.77 [0.44, 1.09]	0.69 [0.25, 1.13]	0.97 [0.48, 1.46]	0.46 [0.15, 0.78]	0.42 [−0.06, 0.89]	0.63 [0.20, 1.06]
	Left Superiorparietal	9.77E-08			1.06 [0.72, 1.39]	1.12 [0.66, 1.58]	1.00 [0.51, 1.49]
	Left Supramarginal	8.13E-03			0.51 [0.19, 0.83]	0.29 [−0.14, 0.72]	0.85 [0.37, 1.33]
Occipital	Left Cuneus	6.91E-04			0.68 [0.36, 1.00]	0.60 [0.16, 1.03]	0.77 [0.29, 1.25]
	Left Lateraloccipital	1.03E-03			0.66 [0.34, 0.98]	0.67 [0.23, 1.11]	0.67 [0.19, 1.14]
	Left Lingual	4.09E-02			0.44 [0.12, 0.75]	0.50 [0.06, 0.93]	0.39 [−0.08, 0.85]
	Left Pericalcarine	7.98E-11	4.40E-02		1.25 [0.91, 1.59]	1.05 [0.59, 1.50]	1.50 [0.97, 2.02]	−0.39 [−0.70, −0.07]	−0.72 [−1.20, −0.23]	−0.10 [−0.53, 0.32]
Cingulate	Left Caudalanteriorcingulate	3.80E-02			−0.46 [−0.78, −0.15]	−0.56 [−1.00, −0.13]	−0.33 [−0.80, 0.14]
	Left Isthmuscingulate
	Left Posteriorcingulate
	Left Rostralanteriorcingulate
Insula	Left Insula	4.65E-02	4.16E-02	3.24E-02	−0.46 [−0.78, −0.14]	−0.85 [−1.30, −0.40]	0.04 [−0.43, 0.50]	0.49 [0.17, 0.81]	−0.01 [−0.48, 0.45]	0.86 [0.42, 1.30]
Mean	Left Meanthickness	3.13E-02	4.40E-02		0.42 [0.10, 0.74]	0.23 [−0.20, 0.66]	0.71 [0.23, 1.18]	0.44 [0.12, 0.75]	0.20 [−0.27, 0.67]	0.68 [0.24, 1.11]
Temporal	Right Entorhinal		6.77E-03					0.61 [0.28, 0.93]	0.50 [0.03, 0.97]	0.67 [0.23, 1.10]
	Right Fusiform
	Right Parahippocampal			4.16E-02	−0.30 [−0.61, 0.02]	−0.68 [−1.12, −0.24]	0.17 [−0.29, 0.63]	0.37 [0.06, 0.69]	−0.11 [−0.58, 0.35]	0.69 [0.25, 1.12]
	Right Temporalpole		4.40E-02					0.47 [0.15, 0.79]	0.22 [−0.25, 0.69]	0.65 [0.22, 1.09]
	Right Bankssts
	Right Inferiortemporal
	Right Middletemporal		1.18E-03					0.71 [0.39, 1.03]	0.44 [−0.04, 0.90]	0.92 [0.48, 1.37]
	Right Superiortemporal
	Right Transversetemporal	6.70E-04	3.80E-02		0.65 [0.32, 0.97]	0.51 [0.08, 0.95]	0.87 [0.39, 1.36]	0.43 [0.11, 0.75]	0.35 [−0.12, 0.82]	0.57 [0.14, 1.00]
Frontal	Right Caudalmiddlefrontal	1.34E-03			0.64 [0.32, 0.96]	0.70 [0.26, 1.14]	0.61 [0.14, 1.08]
	Right Lateralorbitofrontal	8.13E-03		3.80E-02	−0.58 [−0.90, −0.26]	−1.00 [−1.45, −0.54]	−0.11 [−0.57, 0.36]	0.30 [−0.01, 0.62]	−0.20 [−0.66, 0.27]	0.68 [0.24, 1.11]
	Right Medialorbitofrontal
	Right Parsorbitalis
	Right Parsopercularis
	Right Parstriangularis
	Right Rostralmiddlefrontal	5.92E-04			0.68 [0.36, 1.00]	0.63 [0.19, 1.06]	0.77 [0.29, 1.25]
	Right Superiorfrontal
	Right Frontalpole
	Right Paracentral
	Right Precentral
Parietal	Right Inferiorparietal	2.11E-04	4.09E-02		0.70 [0.38, 1.02]	0.60 [0.16, 1.03]	0.89 [0.40, 1.37]	0.42 [0.10, 0.73]	0.28 [−0.19, 0.74]	0.63 [0.19, 1.06]
	Right Postcentral	1.12E-04			0.75 [0.42, 1.07]	0.69 [0.25, 1.12]	0.87 [0.39, 1.36]
	Right Precuneus	2.45E-06	2.83E-03	3.80E-02	0.82 [0.49, 1.14]	0.49 [0.06, 0.93]	1.38 [0.86, 1.89]	0.57 [0.25, 0.89]	0.20 [−0.27, 0.67]	1.02 [0.57, 1.47]
	Right Superiorparietal	8.96E-08			1.06 [0.72, 1.39]	1.07 [0.61, 1.52]	1.07 [0.57, 1.56]
	Right Supramarginal	5.26E-03			0.53 [0.21, 0.85]	0.37 [−0.07, 0.79]	0.82 [0.34, 1.30]
Occipital	Right Cuneus	1.59E-04			0.75 [0.43, 1.08]	0.59 [0.15, 1.02]	0.96 [0.46, 1.44]
	Right Lateraloccipital	9.73E-04			0.67 [0.34, 0.99]	0.77 [0.32, 1.21]	0.59 [0.11, 1.06]
	Right Lingual	7.22E-03			0.56 [0.24, 0.88]	0.55 [0.11, 0.98]	0.57 [0.09, 1.04]
	Right Pericalcarine	1.21E-15			1.59 [1.23, 1.95]	1.42 [0.94, 1.90]	1.81 [1.25, 2.35]
Cingulate	Right Caudalanteriorcingulate
	Right Isthmuscingulate
	Right Posteriorcingulate
	Right Rostralanteriorcingulate
Insula	Right Insula		3.13E-02					0.51 [0.19, 0.83]	0.32 [−0.15, 0.79]	0.65 [0.21, 1.08]
Mean	Right Meanthickness	2.83E-03	3.80E-02		0.55 [0.23, 0.87]	0.36 [−0.07, 0.79]	0.86 [0.38, 1.35]	0.44 [0.13, 0.76]	0.21 [−0.25, 0.68]	0.71 [0.27, 1.14]

Significant levels [false discovery rate (FDR) corrected p-values (p_FDR)] are listed for residency effect (rural or urban), clinical impairment effect (normal or impaired) and their interaction effect in ANCOVA (big column 1). Post-hoc effect-sizes (Cohen’s d) between rural and urban participants are computed using all, only clinically normal and only clinically impaired participants, respectively (big column 2). A positive effect-size indicates thicker cortex in rural-dwelling than urban-dwelling participants. Post-hoc effect-sizes (Cohen’s d) between normal and impaired participants are calculated using all, only rural and only urban participants (big column 3). A positive effect-size indicates thicker cortex in normal than impaired participants. 95% confidence intervals for each post-hoc effect-size (Cohen’s d) are listed in square brackets. Thickness measures used to calculate the effect-sizes have been adjusted for age, sex and education level using coefficients estimated in the ANCOVA.