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. 2024 Oct 20;10:189. doi: 10.1038/s41531-024-00799-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Three main directions of hMLOs in PD research: PD model construction, PD toxicity predictions and PD treatment. PD model construction involves deriving iPSCs from PD patients or using gene-edited iPSCs to generate midbrain organoids, which are then used to investigate PD-related pathological changes, protein dysfunction, and neuronal degeneration. PD toxicity predictions explore the effects of oxidative stress-inducing compounds and selective toxins that target dopaminergic neurons. PD treatment research includes the extraction of neural stem cells (NSCs) from midbrain organoids for transplantation in mouse models and the selection of drugs that may provide therapeutic benefits. This image was independently created by us using Adobe Illustrator. All elements are original, and no third-party materials were used.