Table 2.
Effect of yoga intervention on the primary outcome, secondary outcomes and adapted composite scores
| Variable | Baseline | Follow-up | Effect size estimates | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yoga (n = 119) | Waitlist control (n = 101) | Yoga (n = 119) | Waitlist control (n = 101) | Adjusted mean difference (95% CI) | β-coefficient (95% CI) | |
| Global statistical tests | ||||||
| Generalized estimating equations | 0.03 (0.34) | − 0.06 (0.37) | 0.12 (0.29) | − 0.16 (0.37) | 0.20 (0.14 to 0.26) | 0.29 (0.20 to 0.38)** |
| Rank-sum test | 1325.57 (264.20) | 1242.89 (274.28) | 1389.45 (231.56) | 1175.69 (269.10) | 147.89 (102.15 to 193.63) | 0.28 (0.19 to 0.36)** |
| Secondary markers | ||||||
| Physiological and metabolic health | ||||||
| Glycated hemoglobin (%) | 6.91 (0.76) | 6.84 (0.79) | 6.70 (0.69) | 6.90 (0.89) | − 0.29 (− 0.45 to − 0.13) | − 0.17 (− 0.27 to − 0.08)** |
| LDL-c (mg/dL) | 111.21 (27.62) | 109.39 (28.72) | 111.01 (24.32) | 112.98 (28.61) | − 3.93 (− 7.58 to − 0.27) | − 0.08 (− 0.15 to − 0.01)* |
| Systolic blood pressure (mm/Hg) | 136.65 (15.97) | 134.66 (19.72) | 126.97 (9.85) | 132.78 (13.76) | − 6.43 (− 8.68 to − 4.19) | − 0.25 (− 0.33 to − 0.16)** |
| FEV1 (L/s) | 1.31 (0.59) | 1.34 (0.64) | 1.83 (0.48) | 1.53 (0.55) | 0.30 (0.17 to 0.42) | 0.27 (0.16 to 0.38)** |
| Cognitive function | ||||||
| DSST score | 34.52 (4.61) | 34.16 (4.41) | 37.81 (4.96) | 33.17 (4.32) | 4.26 (3.39 to 5.12) | 0.41 (0.33 to 0.49)** |
| TMT-B/A (ratio) | 2.64 (0.29) | 2.62 (0.26) | 2.59 (0.29) | 2.64 (0.25) | − 0.07 (− 0.13 to − 0.02) | − 0.14 (− 0.25 to − 0.04)* |
| Physical capability | ||||||
| Hand grip strength (kg) | 21.73 (6.56) | 20.48 (6.79) | 24.42 (6.21) | 20.45 (6.87) | 2.71 (1.91 to 3.49) | 0.20 (0.14 to 0.26)** |
| Gait speed (m/s) | 0.80 (0.19) | 0.85 (0.18) | 0.89 (0.19) | 0.83 (0.21) | 0.09 (0.03 to 0.14) | 0.20 (0.08 to 0.32)** |
| Psychological well-being | ||||||
| Physical health | 59.31 (3.53) | 59.61 (3.54) | 62.82 (3.51) | 58.27 (4.58) | 4.55 (3.56 to 5.54) | 0.48 (0.38 to 0.59)** |
| Psychological health | 51.68 (5.75) | 51.27 (5.96) | 56.11 (6.27) | 53.12 (5.68) | 2.34 (1.21 to 3.48) | 0.19 (0.09 to 0.29)** |
| Social relationships | 42.09 (9.89) | 41.66 (10.13) | 49.75 (9.15) | 46.51 (9.27) | 3.45 (1.87 to 5.04) | 0.18 (0.10 to 0.27)** |
| Environmental health | 59.23 (7.51) | 56.49 (8.02) | 62.80 (7.00) | 58.73 (7.68) | 1.93 (0.78 to 3.08) | 0.13 (0.05 to 0.20)** |
| Social well-being | ||||||
| Loneliness score | 46.74 (6.82) | 43.60 (6.67) | 45.43 (6.08) | 41.68 (6.36) | 1.78 (0.46 to 3.09) | 0.13 (0.03 to 0.23)* |
| Adopted composite scores | ||||||
| HATICE adopted composite | 0.07 (0.60) | − 0.10 (0.63) | − 0.05 (0.58) | − 0.02 (0.64) | − 0.18 (− 0.26 to -0.09) | − 0.16 (− 0.23 to − 0.09)** |
| Healthy aging index (HAI) | 5.39 (1.60) | 5.12 (1.51) | 5.77 (1.47) | 5.97 (1.71) | − 0.33 (− 0.63 to -0.02) | − 0.09 (− 0.19 to 0.00)* |
| Additional HAI markers | ||||||
| Serum creatinine (mg/dL) | 1.09 (0.15) | 1.08 (0.13) | 1.01 (0.13) | 1.02 (0.14) | − 0.01 (− 0.05 to 0.03) | − 0.03 (− 0.13 to 0.08) |
| Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL) | 144.19 (52.38) | 125.94 (26.29) | 148.35 (52.24) | 130.11 (26.05) | 0.12 (0.03 to 0.22) | 0.01 (− 0.01 to 0.34) |
| Additional HATICE markers | ||||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.68 (6.36) | 21.67 (4.48) | 23.90 (5.71) | 21.81 (3.99) | 0.34 (− 0.01 to 0.69) | 0.03 (− 0.00 to 0.07) |
Baseline and post-intervention data are presented as mean (standard deviation); group differences in the primary outcomes were analyzed by global statistical tests (GSTs); generalized estimating equations (GEE) and rank-sum tests (RST). Data of GST’s are presented as mean (standard deviation) of composite z-scores for GEE and composite ranked score for RST. Effect sizes are reported as AMD and beta coefficient (β), analyzed with the univariate analysis. Models are adjusted for baseline values of variables and other study covariates (age, gender, education, employment status, marital status, smoking status, comorbidities, and medications). Healthy aging index (HAI) scores are computed as sum of cutoff-based values of five healthy aging markers (fasting blood glucose, creatinine, DSST, SBP, and FEV1). HATICE trial adopted scores are composite of z-scores of BMI, SBP, and LDL-c. LDL-c low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, FEV1 forced expiratory volume in 1 s, DSST digit symbol substitution task, TMT B/A trail making task; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.001