Table 1.
Characteristics of Included Studies
| Study/country | Participants | Intervention | Control type | Outcomes measurement tools | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample size | Cognitive status | Age (mean ± SD) | Setting | Type | Frequency and time | Duration | Total dose | Adherence | |||
|
Park et al., 2014
USA |
Photo group (n = 29) Quilt group (n = 35) Dual group (n = 42) Social activity (n = 36) Placebo (n = 39) |
Healthy | 60–90 y/o (71.7 ± 7.3) | Community | Recreation group | 15.9 hr per week | 3 months | 207.4 hr | 85% | No intervention | Attention: DSF |
|
Lam et al., 2015
China |
Social group (n = 131)
Cognitive group (n = 145) Physical group (n = 147) Cognitive–physical group (n = 132) |
MCI | ≥60 y/o (75.4 ± 6.5) | Social center | Recreation group | Three times a week; 1 hr | 12 months | 156.5 hr | 77% | Active control (physical activity) | Global function: ADAS-Cog, CMMSE, CDR-SOB Attention: DSF Executive function: VF |
|
Iizuka et al., 2019
Japan |
Face‐to‐face group (n = 25)
Non‐face‐to‐face group (n = 25) Control group (n = 22) |
Healthy | ≥65 y/o (76.8) | Community | Recreation group | Once a week; 1 hr | 12 weeks | 12 hr | 83% | Active control (non‐face‐to‐face Go classes) | Memory: LM II Attention: DSF, LM I, TMT‐A Executive function: VF, TMT‐B |
|
Carlson et al., 2008
USA |
Intervention group (n = 70)
Control group (n = 58) |
Healthy | ≥60 y/o (69) | Community | Volunteer (BECT) | 15 hr per week | 8 months | 521.8 hr | 89% | Waiting list control | Memory: Word List Recall, Rey-CFT Attention: TMT‐A Executive function: TMT‐B |
|
Brydges et al., 2021
USA |
Experience Corps group (n = 181)
Control group (n = 155) |
Healthy | ≥60 y/o (66.4 ± 5.6) | Community | Volunteer (BECT) | 15 hr per week | 24 months | 1565.3 hr | Not provided | Waiting list control | Attention and executive function: Stroop |
|
Pitkala et al., 2011
Finland |
Social activity plus therapeutic writing/group exercise/art experience (n = 117) Normal community care (n = 118) |
Healthy | ≥75 y/o (80 ± 3.6) | Day care centers | Group discussion | Once a week; 6 hr | 3 months | 78.3 hr | 94% | No intervention | Global function: ADAS-Cog |
|
Mortimer et al., 2012
China |
Tai Chi (n = 30) Walking (n = 30) Social Interaction (n = 30) No intervention (n = 30) |
Healthy | 60–79 y/o (67.8) | Community | Group discussion | Three times a week; 1 hr | 40 weeks | 120 hr | 90% | No intervention | Global function: MDRS Memory: RAVLT, Rey-CFT Attention: DSF, TMT-A Executive function: Stroop, VF, TMT‐B Language: BNT |
|
Dodge et al., 2015
USA |
CDR = 0: Intervention group (n = 24) Control group (n = 25) CDR = 0.5: Intervention group (n = 17) Control group (n = 17) |
Healthy and MCI | ≥70 y/o (80.5 ± 6.8) | Retirement community and senior centers | Online social | Five times a week; 0.5 hr | 6 weeks | 15 hr | 100% | No intervention | Global function: MMSE Memory: Word list recall Attention: Stroop, TMT‐A Executive function: Stroop, VF, TMT‐B |
|
Myhre et al., 2017
USA |
Facebook group (n = 14)
Online diary group (n = 13) Control group (n = 14) |
Healthy | 75–86 y/o (78.5) | Retirement community | Online social | Three times a week; 2 hr | 8 weeks | 48 hr | 95% | Active control (online diary) | Memory: RAVLT, Rey-CFT Attention: TMT‐A Executive function: TMT‐B |
|
Morton et al., 2018
United Kingdom |
Training group (n = 44)
Control group (n = 32) |
Healthy | 60–95 y/o (80.7 ± 8.8) | Care organization | Online social | Three times a week; 1.5 hr | 3 months | 58.7 hr | 83% | Care-as-usual | Global function: ACE-R |
|
Kawakami et al., 2019
Japan |
Spectator group (n = 29)
Control group (n = 29) |
Healthy | 65–85 y/o (73.7 ± 5.3) | Community | Visit sport events | Two games a month; 3 hr | 2 months | 12 hr | 100% | Waiting list control | Attention and executive function: Stroop |
Notes: ACE-R = Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination-Revised; ADAS-Cog = Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale—Cognitive; BNT = Boston Naming Test; CMMSE = Chinese version of Mini-Mental State Examination; CDR-SOB = clinical dementia rating—sum of boxes; DSF = digit span forward; LM I = Logical Memory 1; LM II = Logical Memory 2; MDRS = Mattis Dementia Rating Scale; RAVLT = Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; Rey-CFT = Rey Complex Figure Test; TMT‐A = Trail Making Test Part A; TMT‐B = Trail Making Test Part B; VF = verbal fluency.