Table 6.

Overview of studies measuring both religiosity and spirituality reviewed. Results

Author Year Journal	Results	Confounder	Conclusion
Allen & Lo, 2010 Journal of Drug Issues	At Stage 1 of the logistic regression, the crack cocaine use was regressed on the religiosity and control variables, and OR for religiosity and crack cocaine use was 0.958 (b = −0.043, but p > 0.05, so not statistically significant). At Stage 2 of the logistic regression, the spirituality variables were added, and OR for religiosity and crack cocaine use was 0.856 (b = −0.156, with a p < 0.05); OR for spirituality and crack cocaine use was 1.054 (b = 0.052, with p < 0.05). At Stage 3, with social bonding variables added, OR for religiosity and crack cocaine use was 0.863 (b = −0.148, with p < 0.05) and OR for spirituality and crack cocaine use was 1.053 (b = 0.051, p < 0.05)	age, gender, ethnicity, marital status, academic degree	While in the Stage 1 model religiosity was not found to be significant, at Stage 2 and Stage 3 religiosity exerted significant negative effects on crack cocaine use. In the Stage 2 model, both religiosity and spirituality demonstrated a significant relationship to lifetime crack cocaine use, religiosity as protective factor and spirituality as risk factor; the religiosity and spirituality variables continued to be significant in the Stage 3 model, maintaining the same directions, respectively. The negative relationship observed between religiosity and crack cocaine use was slightly reduced when social bonding variables were included in the Stage 3 model. This indicates that social bonding mediated religiosity’s impact on lifetime crack use
Watkins et al., 2016 J Relig Health	Religiosity was associated with cocaine use (r = 0.0978, p = 0.0010), and crack use (r = 0.1128, p = 0.0001). The spirituality index was negatively associated with cocaine use (r = −0.0719, p = 0.0153) and crack use (r = −0.1164, p = \0.0001)	ethnicity, age, HIV status, unprotected sexual intercourse	More religious Black MSM tended to report cocaine and crack use and were more likely to be HIV negative. Religiosity among Black MSM who use crack and cocaine was associated with higher levels of risky behavior as found in other studies and may increase risk of HIV and STD infection. Spirituality was negatively associated with unprotected anal sex, alcohol use, cocaine use, and crack use