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. 2024 Oct 15;14(4):1465–1518. doi: 10.3390/jox14040082

Table 1.

Removal of antibiotics with agro-industrial wastes.

Pharmaceutical Drug Chemical Structure Ci (mg/L) Agro-Industrial Waste Agro-Industrial Waste Treatment Biosorbent Concentration (g/L) Time (h) Removal Percentage qmax (mg/g)
Langmuir Model		 Reference DMRR (mg/g·h)
Sulfamethoxazole graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i001.jpg 1 Miscanthus x giganteus biochar Air-dried, cut, pyrolyzed at 360 °C. 2.0 4 32 - [211] 0.3
3.8 Rice husk Rice husks were washed, dried at 60 °C for 48 h, grounded, sieved and pyrolyzed at 500 °C (RH-500) and 800 °C (RH-800) for 2 h. RH-800 was activated with NaOH, heated at 800 °C. 0.2 0.25 - - [212] -
10–60 Sugarcane bagasse Untreated sugarcane bagasse was used as an adsorbent, was washed with ultrapure water, dried at 60 °C for 8 h, ground, and triturated. 0.02 0.083 51 1.43 [213] -
20 Wheat straw ashes The acidification of ashes was performed using 2 M HCl, mixture at 70 °C, filtered, dried at 105 °C. 1 0.5 22 - [214] 8.8
Sulfamethoxazole graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i002.jpg 100 Activated biochar of forage bermudagrass Dried and sieved, pyrolyzed at 300 °C, activated with NaOH, washed with 3 M HCl and deionized water, dried at 105 °C. 0.01 72 91.86 424.66 [215] 127.6
0.5–40 Activated carbon of walnut shell Pyrolyzed at 300 °C, impregnated with K2CO3, heated at 105 °C and 900 °C. 0.01 48 - 93.5 [216] -
250 Biochar of malt rootlets Dried at 50 °C, sieved, heated at 900 °C. 0.09 1.5 94 - [207] 1740.7
10 Biochar of bagasse Pyrolyzed at 300, 400, and 600 °C, washed with deionized water, dried, crushed, and sieved. 0.1 24 41.55 54.38 [217] 1.8
30 Almond shell activated biochar Pyrolyzed at 700 °C and mixed with H2O2. 0.005 3 96.88 344.8 [206] 1940.0
0.5–50 Bamboo biochar Cut into 0.6–2 mm size particles, pyrolyzed at 380 °C, cooled, grinded, washed, and dried. Added H3PO4 at 50 °C, heated to 600 °C, cooled, washed with distilled water, and dryed at 120 °C. 0.1 24 - 34.01 [218] -
0.00005 Pelletized pine forestry waste biochar Pyrolyzed at 850 °C, ground and sieved, dried at 105 °C. 40 1 75 - [219] 0.0000009
0–80 Arundo donax stems biochar Pyrolyzed at 300–600 °C, milled, washed with deionized water, and other portion was pulverized for demineralization with HCl and HCL-HF and heated to 750 °C. 0.1 48 - 0.473–0.778 * [220] -
Ciprofloxacin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i003.jpg 50 Olive stones Olive stone waste was cleaned with distilled water, dried at 105 °C; was pulverized, washed, and dried at 105 °C; was carbonized at 450 °C; added KOH and activating at 550, 650, and 750 °C. 1 1.25 99 294.98 [221] 39.6
25 Activated biochar of barley bagasse The barley bagasse was dried at 60–70 °C, crushed, sieved, and heated at 105 and 400 °C; activated biochar of barley bagasse with 2 M of K2CO3, dried and washed with distilled water. 0.5 24 82 104.9 [222] 1.7
5.0 Rice husk Rice husks were washed, dried at 60 °C for 48 h, grounded, sieved and pyrolyzed 500 °C (RH-500) and 800 °C (RH-800) for 2 h. RH-800 was activated with NaOH, heated at 800 °C. 0.2 0.25 - 584.4 [212] -
10–60 Sugarcane bagasse Untreated sugarcane bagasse was used as an adsorbent, was washed with ultrapure water, dried at 60 °C for 8 h, ground, and triturated. 5 0.083 99 2.61 [213] -
250 Dialium guineense seed waste (DGS) Washed with distilled water, dried in open air, heated at 105 °C, dried, grinded, and sieved. 0.1 2 42.9 9.17 [209] 536.0
Dialium guineense seed waste sodium hydroxide modified form (NH-DGS) Washed with distilled water, dried in open air, heated at 105 °C, dried, grinded, and sieved. Mixed with NaOH, filtered and washed with deionized water, dried at 80–120 °C. 61.0 120.34 762.5
60 Banyan aerial roots Cut 1 cm, washed with deionized water, dried at 80 °C, mixed with 1 M C6H8O7, and heated at 150 °C. 0.03 48 90.66 65.70 [223] 37.8
20 Biochar of rice straw Washed, dried at 80 °C, crushed, heated to 700 °C, washed with deionized water. 1.6 24 55.0 48.80 [224] 0.3
100 Carbon from date palm leaflets Cut, carbonized with sulfuric acid, heated at 160 °C. 0.4 48 - 133.3 [225] -
Tetracycline graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i004.jpg 100 Alfalfa biochar Pyrolyzed at 500 °C, washed with deionized water and filtered (0.45 µm), and washed with 0.1 M HCl. 0.01 48 - 372.31 [226] -
Bermudagrass biochar - 44.24 -
10 Activated carbon from peach stones (AC-PS) Washed with ultrapure water, dried at 110 °C, and chemically activated with H3PO4. 0.8 3 96.1 845.9 [227] 4.0
100 Activated carbon of hard Shell of apricot stone Washed with distilled water, ground, added H3PO4, heated to 100 °C and after to 400 °C, washed with distilled water, dried at 80 °C. 0.3 24 100 308.33 [228] 13.9
20 Activated nanobiochar from vine wood Washed, pyrolyzed at 600 °C, activated with NaOH 5% w/w and NaCl (3 M). 0.4 8 88.17 1.98 [201] 5.5
100 Spent black tea leaves (SBTL) Steep under stirring with boiling water 100 °C, filtered, washed with distilled water, dried at 100 °C, ground. 0.2 3 78 - [229] 130.0
Pomegranate peel (PP) Ground and pulverized, steeped under stirring with boiling water 100 °C, filtered, washed with distilled water, dried at 100 °C, ground. 0.3 0.5 90 - 600.0
50 Bamboo charcoal Carbonized at 150–250 °C, 250–400 °C and 400–700 °C, ground and sieved, washed, dried at 105 °C. 1 24 87.6 22.7 [230] 1.8
Amoxicillin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i005.jpg 25 Banana peel activated carbon Activated carbon by H3PO4, carbonized at 350 °C, 450 and 500 °C. 1.5 2 96.02 393.70 [231] 8.0
100 Activated biochar from corn cob Corn cobs were used for activated biochar with ZnCl2, dried at 120 °C for 12 h, pyrolyzed at 700 °C for 2 h. 1 6 65.88 175.86 [232] 11.0
700 Bertholletia excelsa capsules Milled, mixed with ZnCl2, dried at 80 °C, pyrolyzed from 25 up to 600 or 700 °C, cooled, and refluxed with HCl. 1.5 0.5 98.60 388.4 [208] 920.3
25 Olive stone Washed with tap water and impregnated with H3PO4 at 100 °C for 9 h, dried at 170 °C and 380 °C, washed with distilled water, and dyed at 110 °C. 1.0 100 93 57.04 [233] 0.2
20 Activated nanobiochar from vine wood Washed, pyrolyzed at 600 °C, activated with NaOH 5% w/w and NaCl (3 M). 0.4 8 60.23 2.69 [201] 3.8
Norfloxacin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i006.jpg 15–150 Activated carbons of red mombin seeds The red mombin seeds, corn cob, coffee husk, internal and external parts of mango seeds and ice cream beans were washed with potable water and dried at 80 °C, were grounded and sieved, all raw materials were mixed with ZnCl2 and were pyrolyzed at 600 °C for 2 h. 0.01 7 - 404 [202] -
Activated carbons of corn cob - 264 -
Activated carbons of coffee husk - 235 -
Activated carbons of internal parts of mango seeds - 221 -
Activated carbons of external parts of mango seeds - 262 -
Activated carbons of ice cream beans - 84 -
5 Rice husk Washed with distilled water, dried at 60 °C for 48 h, ground to powder and sieved. 0.2 3 59.51 - [234] 5.0
Coffee husk 70.83 - 5.8
10 Biochar from potato stem Washed, dried at 80 °C, chopped, crushed, sieved, pyrolyzed at 500 °C. 0.1 36 - 5.24 [235] -
Ofloxacin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i007.jpg 25–250 Activated carbons of red mombin seeds The red mombin seeds, corn cob, coffee husk, internal and external parts of mango seeds and ice cream beans were washed with potable water and dried at 80 °C, were grounded and sieved, all raw materials were mixed with ZnCl2 and were pyrolyzed at 600 °C for 2 h. 0.01 7 - 380 [202] -
Activated carbons of corn cob - 267 -
Activated carbons of coffee husk - 202 -
Activated carbons of internal parts of mango seeds - 176 -
Activated carbons of external parts of mango seeds - 254 -
Activated carbons of ice cream beans - 77 -
100 Bamboo sawdust biochar Pyrolyzed at 500 °C, washed with distilled water, dried at 105 °C. 0.05 96 - 45.11 [236] -
50 Moringa oleifera pod husks (AMOP) Air-dried, pulverized, sieved, activated with NH4Cl, filtered, washed with distilled water, and air-dried. 2.5 4 90.98 3.597 [237] 4.5
Biochar of Moringa oleifera pod husks (CMOP) Air-dried, pulverized, sieved, activated with NH4Cl, filtered, washed with distilled water, air-dried, pyrolyzed at 350 °C, washed with distilled water, air-dried. 99.84 5.051 5.0
Chloramphenicol graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i008.jpg 5–100 Wheat straw Pyrolyzed at 550 °C and 700 °C, respectively, crushed and sieved, washed with HCl and deionized water. 0.05 24 - 11.3 [238] -
Softwood - 8.8 -
50 Bamboo charcoal Carbonized at 150–250 °C, 250–400 °C and 400–700 °C, ground and sieved, washed, dried at 105 °C. 1.0 24 70.3 8.1 [230] 1.5
Doxycycline graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i009.jpg 20 Biochar of rice straw Washed, dried at 80 °C, crushed, heated to 700 °C, washed with deionized water. 1.6 24 90.0 170.36 [224] 0.5
100 Spent black tea leaves (SBTL) Steep under stirring with boiling water 100 °C, filtered, washed with distilled water, dried at 100 °C, ground. 0.05 2.5 89 - [229] 672.0
Pomegranate peel (PP) Ground and pulverized steep under stirring with boiling water 100 °C, filtered, washed with distilled water, dried at 100 °C, ground. 0.15 1.5 83 - 368.9
Metronidazole graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i010.jpg 100 Cassava starch waste Dried at 60 °C, activated with H3PO4, NaOH and combination of both, heated at 105 °C, washed with water, dried at 105 °C, pyrolyzed at 900 °C. 0.1 24 55 - [239] 22.9
0.5–40 Activated carbon of walnut Shell Pyrolyzed at 300 °C, impregnated with K2CO3, heated at 105 °C and 900 °C. 0.01 48 - 93.5 [216] -
Azithromycin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i011.jpg 200 Biochar from Terminalla chebula (CBC) Cleaned, dried, and peeled the bagasse was shredded, washed, dried 72 h at 70 °C, heated for pyrolysis at 500 °C for 1 h; after cooling, washed and dried at 70 °C for 12 h. 200 2 57.17 21.36 [240] 0.29
Biochar from sugarcane bagasse (BBC) 60.03 17.95 0.30
Cefazolin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i012.jpg 30 Alperujo Alperujo dried were covered with distilled water, heated at 160–220 °C, dried at 50 °C, and sieved. 0.125 24 - 1572.73 [241] -
Sulfadiazine graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i013.jpg 20 Activated carbons from olive pomace Washed with hot distilled water, dried at 103 °C, ground and sieved, pyrolyzed at 450 °C, impregnated with KOH, stirred at 60 °C, dried at 103 °C. The mixture was activated at 560, 700, and 840 °C, cooled, washed with distilled water, and dried at 103 °C. 0.8 2 99 66.2 [242] 12.3
Sulfamethazine graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i014.jpg 0.5–50 Bamboo biochar Cut into 0.6–2 mm size particles, pyrolyzed at 380 °C, cooled, grinded, washed, and dried. Adding H3PO4 at heated 50 °C and heated at 600 °C, cooled, washed with distilled water and drying at 120 °C. 0.1 24 - 40.11 [218] -
Enrofloxacin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i015.jpg 100 Bamboo sawdust biochar Pyrolyzed at 500 °C, washed with distilled water, dried at 105 °C. 0.05 96 - 45.88 [236] -
Trimethoprim graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i016.jpg 29 Charcoal from feathers Washed, drying at 80 °C, crushed, heated at 600 °C, dried 105 °C, sieved to 100–160 mesh. 0.2 60 90 164 [243] 2.2
Cephalexin graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i017.jpg 20 Activated nanobiochar from vine wood Washed, pyrolyzed at 600 °C and activated with NaOH 5% w/w and NaCl (3 M). 0.4 8 76.02 7.08 [201] 4.8
Penicillin G graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i018.jpg 20 Activated nanobiochar from vine wood Washed, pyrolyzed at 600 °C and activated with NaOH 5% w/w and NaCl (3 M). 0.4 8 73.94 8.41 [201] 4.6

Ci = initial concentration; qmax = maximum absorption according to the adsorption isotherm model Langmuir/Freundlich; DMRR = drug mass removal rate, calculated in this review; * adsorption isotherm model: Freundlich.