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. 2024 Oct 15;14(4):1465–1518. doi: 10.3390/jox14040082

Table 2.

Removal of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with agro-industrial wastes.

Pharmaceutical Drug Chemical Structure Ci (mg/L) Agro-Industrial Waste Agro-Industrial Waste Treatment Biosorbent Concentration (g/L) Time (h) Removal Percentage qmax (mg/g)
Langmuir Model		 Reference DMRR (mg/g·h)
Diclofenac graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i019.jpg 50 Olive stones Olive stone waste was cleaned with distilled water; dried at 105 °C; pulverized, washed, and dried at 105 °C; carbonized at 450 °C; and KOH was added and activated at 550, 650, and 750 °C. 1 1.25 99 256.41 [221] 39.6
25 Chestnut shells biochar The chestnut shells were dried at 60 °C for 8 h and ground; 50 g of water chestnut shells were soaked in FeSO4.7H2O, pyrolyzed at 600 °C, sieved, and dried at 80 °C. 0.5 1 98 75.9 [248] 49.0
4.4 Rice husk Rice husks were washed, dried at 60 °C for 48 h, grounded, sieved, and pyrolyzed 500 °C (RH-500) and 800 °C (RH-800) for 2 h. RH-800 was activated with NaOH, heated at 800 °C. 0.2 0.25 - - [212] -
100 Rice husk ash Rice husk ashes were heated at 105 °C for 1.5 h and sieved. 1 4 - 2.3 [249] -
10–60 Sugarcane bagasse Untreated sugarcane bagasse was used as an adsorbent, washed with ultrapure water, dried at 60 °C for 8 h, ground, and triturated. 0.017 0.083 77 1.81 [213] -
5–100 Wheat straw Pyrolyzed at 550 °C and 700 °C, respectively, crushed and sieved, washed with HCl and deionized water. 0.05 24 - 6.7 [238] -
Softwood - 5.5 -
12.5 Fique Bagasse Dried at 100 °C, sieved, and biochar produced through pyrolyzed at 650, 750, and 850 °C. 0.05 24 56 5.4 [250] 5.8
20 Wheat straw ashes The acidification of ashes was carried out using 2 M HCl, mixture at 70 °C, filtered, dried at 105 °C. 1 0.5 0 - [214] 0.0
0.5 Pinewood microbiochar Pyrolyzed at 525 °C, ground and sieved. 2 48 70 1.106 ** [251] 0.004
20–350 Moringa oleifera seed husks Husks were peeled and ground, washed, dried at 105 °C, mixed with methyl alcohol, washed with purified water and stirred in HNO3, washed with purified water and dried at 105 °C, dried at 300 °C, washed with purified water, filtered, and dried at 105 °C. 0.025 24 - 72.77 [252] -
0.5 Pinewood microbiochar Pyrolyzed at 525 °C, ground, and sieved. 0.1 4.5 68 526.3 [253] 0.8
10 Activated onion skin Washed, dried and ground (0.25 mm), pretreated with H2SO4, and dried at 50 °C. 0.05 3.6 65.99 134.0035 * [254] 36.7
30 Activated carbon from cocoa pod husks Sun-dried cocoa pods were pulverized, the powder was sieved, soaked for 24 h with H2SO4, washed with deionized water, and dried at 120 °C. 0.25 0.25 93.6 0.47 [247] 449.3
0.1 Cellulose fiber (CF) decorated with polypyrrole (PPy) CF mixed with FeCl3.6H2O, filtered, washed with water/methanol (1:1, v/v), dried at 60 °C. 0.025 0.25 93 210.07 [255] 14.9
50 Activated carbon from potato peel waste Dried at 60 °C, milled and sieved, carbon activation was carried out with K2CO3, dried at 100 °C, heated at 700 °C, cooled, washed with distilled water, and dried at 100 °C. 0.01 24 70 68.5 [256] 145.8
14.80 Activated carbon of olive waste cake Impregnated with H3PO4, pyrolyzed to 450 °C, cooled, washed with hot distilled water, dried at 105 °C, and ground. 0.3 26 - 56.2 [244] -
Acetaminophen graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i020.jpg 25–100 Tingui shells Tingui shells underwent thermal decomposition at 550 °C for 2 h and activation with carbon dioxide, and distilled water was added; it was kept at 200 °C for 24 h and activated with carbon dioxide; called HT-CO2. 20 24 - 383.2 [257] -
50 Activated carbon from artichoke leaves Pomegranate peels and artichoke leaves were washed with deionized water and dried for 36 h at 90 °C, crushed and sieved, and dried at 115 °C for 24 h. The pyrolysis was carried out at 450 °C and peels were mixed with 1 M HCl at 80 °C for 1.5 h. 0.5 1 98.1 154.9 [258] 49.1
Activated carbon from pomegranate peels - 258.9 -
2.3 Rice husk Rice husks were washed, dried at 60 °C for 48 h, grounded, sieved, and pyrolyzed at 500 °C (RH-500) and 800 °C (RH-800) for 2 h. RH-800 was activated with NaOH, heated at 800 °C. 0.2 0.25 - 209.6 [212] -
Acetaminophen graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i021.jpg 12.5–200 Purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) waste The plant was collected, washed, dried for 5 days, pulverized, mixed with distilled water, heated at 85 °C for 60 min, cooled, and filtered. 0.5 1–800 - 0.023 [259] -
100 Activated biochar from corn cob Corn cobs were used for activated biochar with ZnCl2, dried at 120 °C for 12 h, and pyrolyzed at 700 °C for 2 h. 1 6 69.37 332.08 [232] 11.6
100 Dende coconuts (DND) The carbons derived from babassu coconut biomass and dende coconut were sieved, washed with water, and dried at 60 °C for 24 h. 10 300 - 149 [260] -
babassu coconuts (BBS) - 128 -
100 Gundelia tournefortii seeds Gundelia tournefortii seeds were washed with distilled water and dried. After, the seed waste was soaked for 24 h in H3PO4, washed with distilled water, dried at 105 °C for 24 h, and then carbonized for 1 h at 700 °C, cooled, washed, and dried at 105 °C. 0.25 0.5 98.31 14.34 [246] 786.5
150 Mango seeds Mango seeds were cut, rinsed in distilled water, drained, and immersed in HCl for 24 h. After, mango seeds were washed with distilled water and dried at 105 °C; crushed, sieved, and treated with phosphoric acid (H3PO4) for 24 h; dried at 105 °C for 24 h; and carbonized at 400 °C for 1 h. Rinsed with NaOH and dried at 105 °C. 1.95 1.1 94.01 7.23 [261] 65.7
45 Activated carbon from residual pods of Erythrina speciosa Washed with tap water, broken, dried at 50 °C, grounded, mixed with ZnCl2, dried, heated at 10 °C, pyrolyzed at 800 °C, washed with HCl and distilled water, dried at 50 °C. 1.2 2 86.49 60.83 [262] 16.2
450 Activated carbon of Jatoba bark Washed with distilled water, dried at 70 °C, ground, activated with KOH, heated at 500 °C. 0.025 4 - 356.25 [263] -
100 Activated carbon from Quercus brantii (Oak) Pyrolysis at 600 °C and activation with NaOH, KOH, NH4Cl, ZnCl2, and H3PO4. 10 2.5 89.55 45.45 [264] 3.6
120 Activated carbon of banana leaves Cleaned with tap water, washed, dried, crushed, and immersed in H2SO4; carbonized at 150 °C, cooled, washed with NaOH and distilled water, and dried at 60 °C. 0.01 24 83.8 142.2 [265] 419.2
0.007 Activated carbon of olive stones Grinded, washed with distilled water, dried at 100 °C, impregnated with H3PO4, heated at 500 °C, washed with distilled water at 60 °C, heated at 900 °C, grinded, and sieved. 0.01 240 - 108.3 [266] -
Ibuprofen graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i022.jpg 100 Rice husk ash Rice husk ashes were heated at 105 °C for 1.5 h and sieved. 1 4 - 2.3 [249] -
10–60 Sugarcane bagasse Untreated sugarcane bagasse was used as an adsorbent; washed with ultrapure water, dried at 60 °C for 8 h, ground, and triturated. 0.02 0.083 65 1.62 [213] -
10 Olive pomace The olive pomace was dried at 105 °C for 24 h and sieved, activated with zinc chloride and calcium hydroxide (1:0.8:0.2), and pyrolyzed at 550 °C for 0.5 h; after, the treated material underwent acid leaching with HCl 6 mol L−1 and was washed with water, dried at 105 °C for 24 h. 0.5 0.8 95.28 360.607 [267] 2.8
75 Activated carbon from rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.) leaves The rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.) leaves were pulverized, pyrolyzed at 600 °C for 2 h; the activation of carbon leaves was with orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4); after, the mixture was rinsed with ultrapure water several times and dried at 70 °C. 0.5 1.5 83.12 113.76 [268] 83.1
50 Carbon activated of bean husks Washed with distilled water, sun-dried, pulverized, sieved H3PO4 added, heated at 105 °C, cooled and washed with deionized water, and dried at 105 °C. 0.1 1.16 78.17 50.00 [269] 336.9
15 Wood apple biochar (WAB) Pyrolyzed at 650 °C, heated to 65 °C, and cooled. 0.33 24 90 5 [270] 1.7
30 Wood apple steam activated biochar (WASAB) 1 95 12.658 1.2
100 Activated carbon from Quercus brantii (Oak) Pyrolysis at 600 °C and activation with NaOH, KOH, NH4Cl, ZnCl2, and H3PO4. 10 2 100 96.15 [264] 5.0
10 Activated onion skin Washed, dried and ground (0.25 mm), pretreated with H2SO4, and dried at 50 °C. 0.05 3.6 81.90 147.058 [254] 45.6
10 Activated carbon from rice husk (AC-RH) Washed with ultrapure water, dried at 110 °C, and chemically activated with H3PO4. 0.8 3 97.2 239.8 [227] 4.0
20 Activated biochar from mung bean husk Washed with distilled water, dried, pyrolyzed at 550 °C, and heated up to 650 °C; steam was passed for activate biochar; was grinded and sieved. 0.1 2 99.16 62.5 [271] 99.2
100 Pinewood biochar Pyrolyzed at 425 °C, washed with distilled water, sieved, heated at 110 °C. 4 16 72.0 10.74 [272] 1.2
10.04 Activated carbon of olive waste cake Impregnated with H3PO4, pyrolyzed to 450 °C, cooled, washed with hot distilled water, dried at 105 °C, and ground. 0.3 26 70.07 12.6 [244] 0.9
Dipyrone graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i023.jpg 100 Yeast waste (YW) The wastes YW, CP, and CG were pyrolyzed at 800 °C for 2 h. For functionalization, natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES) was added to the biochar, also mixing citric acid, sucrose, and water (1:1:10); was stirred at 220 rpm for 2 h at 50 °C. The suspensions were ultrasonicated at 65 °C for 2 h and dried at 65 °C. 0.01 0.5 31 2.71 [245] 6200
Cork Powder (CP) 0.5 52.10 14.66 10,420
Old coffee grounds (CG) 0.5 47 40.78 9400
Ketoprofen graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i024.jpg 19.28 Activated carbon of olive waste cake Impregnated with H3PO4, pyrolyzed to 450 °C, cooled, washed with hot distilled water, dried at 105 °C, and ground. 0.3 26 88.40 24.7 [244] 2.2
Naproxen graphic file with name jox-14-00082-i025.jpg 19.78 Activated carbon of olive waste cake Impregnated with H3PO4, pyrolyzed to 450 °C, cooled, washed with hot distilled water, dried at 105 °C, and ground. 0.3 26 90.45 39.5 [244] 2.3

Ci = initial concentration; qmax = maximum absorption according to the adsorption isotherm model Langmuir/Freundlich; DMRR= drug mass removal rate, calculated in this review; * adsorption isotherm model: Freundlich; ** adsorption isotherm model: Thomas.