Table 2.
Overview of some exerkines with neuroprotective properties.
| Name | Source Tissue(s) | Target Tissue(s) | Example(s) of Biological Action | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin | WAT | Brain, heart, liver, muscle | Anti-inflammatory, glucose and fatty acid metabolism | [195,196,197,198] |
| Apelin | Skeletal muscle, WAT | Brain, bone, skeletal muscle | Anti-apoptotic | [48,199] |
| BAIBA | Skeletal muscle | Many sites | Metabolic regulator, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative | [200,201,202] |
| BHB | Liver | Many sites | Improves fuel utilization, anti-inflammatory | [203,204,205] |
| BDNF | Brain, skeletal muscle | Brain | Enhances synaptic plasticity, and cell growth | [206,207,208,209] |
| CTSB | Skeletal muscle | Brain | Neurogenesis, memory | [210,211] |
| Fetuin-A | Liver | Liver, brain | Neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory | [212,213,214] |
| FGF21 | Many tissues, liver, WAT | Many tissues, heart, bone, gut, brain, WAT | Improves fuel utilization (glucose, lipid) | [215,216,217] |
| GDNF | Spinal cord | Brain | Maintenance of spinal motor neurons and midbrain dopaminergic neurons | [218,219,220] |
| GPLD1 | Liver | Brain | Improves neurogenesis and cognition | [221,222] |
| IGF-1 | Liver, skeletal muscle, and other tissues | Brain, many sites | A mediator of brain health following exercise including neurogenesis and cognitive improvement | [223,224,225] |
| IL-6 | Skeletal muscle | Many sites | Energy sensor, anti-inflammatory in brain | [226,227,228] |
| Irisin (FNDC5) | Skeletal muscle | WAP, bone, β-cells, brain |
Promotes neuronal health | [229,230,231] |
| Lactate | Skeletal muscle | Many tissues, including CNS | Brain fuel source | [232,233,234] |
| Lac-Phe | Epithelial cells in gut and kidney | Many tissues, including CNS | Suppresses feeding and obesity | [235,236,237] |
| mIR451a/mIR-150-5p/sEV | Skeletal muscle and other tissues | Many tissues including CNS | Protects against depression (miR-451a) and anxiety (miR-150-5p) | [238,239,240] |
| Monoamine neurotrans-mitter (DA, NE, 5-HT) | Brain | Brain | DA—Motor control, learning, executive function; NE—stress resistance memory, cognition; 5-HT—relieve anxiety, stress protection, cognition | [241,242,243] |
| PGC-1α/ Kynurenine |
Skeletal muscle, liver, and other tissues | Skeletal muscle, and brain | PGC-1α activates kynurenine aminotransferase, switching the ratio of kynurenine (neurotoxic) to kynurenic acid (neuroprotective) | [244,245,246] |
| VEGF | Skeletal muscle and other tissues | Brain endothelium and other tissues | Promotes angiogenesis and exercise-induced neurogenesis | [247,248,249] |