Table 1.

Overview of RVFV studies reported in rhesus macaques.

Publication	Challenge Dose	Challenge Route 1	Number 2	Outcomes
Findlay et al., 1931 [64]	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Fever and leucopenia.
Findlay, 1932 [65]	Unknown	i.p.	10	Viremia and fever.
		i.c.	1	Viremia and fever.
		s.c.	1	Viremia.
		i.n.	2	Viremia and fever.
Findlay et al., 1936 [66]	Unknown	i.c.	3	Viremia and encephalitis, resulting in being culled.
		i.p.	5	Viremia and encephalitis in 2 animals 4.
		i.n.	2	Viremia, fever and encephalitis.
Smithburn et al., 1948 [67]	Unknown	s.c.	6	Viremia and fever, dependent on mosquito homogenate inoculum.
Miller et al., 1963 [68]	2820 MIPLD50 5	Aerosol	4	Viremia and temperature elevation.
	275 MIPLD50	Aerosol	4	Viremia and temperature elevation.
	145 MIPLD50	Aerosol	4	Viremia and temperature elevation.
	76 MIPLD50	Aerosol	4	Viremia and temperature elevation.
Easterday, 1965 [69]	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Viremia and febrile.
Peters et al., 1986 [70]	4.2 log10 pfu	i.v.	4	Non-clinically ill. All viremic for 3 days.
Peters et al., 1988 [71]	5.3 log10 pfu	s.c.	3	One animal non-viremic, two animals viremic (days 1–3).
	4.7 log10 pfu	i.v.	4	Three animals showed transient viremia; one ill with haemorrhagic diathesis and culled on day 7.
	4.1 log10 pfu	i.v.	3	All were viremic, with one ill with haemorrhagic signs but recovered.
	4.8 log10 pfu	i.v.	5	Viremic from day 1 up to day 4. One animal culled on day 3.
Morrill et al., 1989 [72]	105 pfu	i.v.	17	All developed high viremia peaking at 48 h. n = 3 monkeys developed severe clinical signs: anorexia, cutaneous hemorrhage, epistaxis, and vomiting. One died on day 8 and two culled on days 6 and 15. Of the n = 14 which survived, 50% had a clinical illness (cutaneous rash, vomiting, or anorexia), and 7 had no evidence apart from brief pyrexia.
Morrill et al., 1989 [75]	5.0 log10 pfu	i.v.		Report from monkeys used above.
Cosgriff et al., 1989 [74]	5.0 log10 pfu	i.m. 3		Report based on the data from monkeys used above.
Morrill et al., 1990 [73]	105 pfu	i.v.		Report based on the data from monkeys used above.
Morrill et al., 1991 [76]	105 pfu	i.v.	3	All viremic with a peak after 24–48 h. One animal showed clinical signs characterised by petechia in the axillary and inguinal area alongside a temperature increase.
Morrill et al., 2003 [77]	5.0 log10 pfu	i.v.	4	All control monkeys challenged with virulent RVFV had detectable viremia for 3–5 days, and 75% (3/4) had poor appetite or anorexia, mild to moderate petechiation in the axillary and inguinal regions, and reduced activity from day 3 to 5.
Smith et al., 2011 [80]	7 log10 pfu	i.v.	4	All developed viremia, peaking on day 2. None presented with clinical illness.
Morrill et al., 2011 [78]	~105 pfu	Aerosol	4	All showed elevated temperatures and viremia.
Morrill et al., 2011 [79]	3 × 106 pfu	i.v.	3	Reduced activity during the first 2 days. Viremia started at 24 h and continued to day 3.
	~5 × 105 pfu	Aerosol	5	All showed viremia on days 3 and 4. One monkey had a mild transient elevation in rectal temperature coinciding with the recovery of the virus from the oropharyngeal swab.
Hartman et al., 2014 [81]	5.04 or 5.67 log10 pfu	Aerosol	2	Biphasic fever, but no other clinical signs indicative of disease.
Bian et al., 2023 [82]	N/A	N/A	N/A	Immunogenicity study, no challenge.

¹ i.p., intraperitoneal; i.c., intracranial; s.c., subcutaneous; i.n., intranasal; i.v, intravenous; s.c., subcutaneous. ² Number of animals in untreated control groups. ³ Presumed error in the manuscript. ⁴ Animals with encephalitis received starch via the i.c. route alongside i.p. RVFV challenge. ⁵ MIPLD₅₀, mouse intraperitoneal lethal dose of 50%.