Table 2.
Overview of the studies using the GLP-1 receptor agonists in in vitro and in vivo traumatic brain injury models.
| GLP-1 Receptor Agonist | Model | Outcomes | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| In Vitro Studies | |||
| Exendin-4 | Oxidative stress in β cells | Decrease in apoptosis | Kim et al. [86] |
| Slow-release exenatide PT-302 |
Glial cells | Anti-inflammation | Bader et al. [79] |
| Liraglutide | SH-SY5Y cells and SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing GLP-1 receptors | Dose-dependent proliferation in SH-SY5Y cells and a GLP-1R overexpressing cell line, pre-treatment effectively protected neuronal cells from cell death induced by oxidative stress and glutamate excitotoxicity |
Li et al. [77] |
| Exendin-4 | SH-SY5Y cells, primary neuron cultures, rodent primary cerebral cortical neurons | In neuronal cultures, exendin-4 ameliorated H2O2-induced oxidative stress and glutamate toxicity | Rachmany et al. [78] |
| Exendin-4 | HT22 cells (neuronal-derived cell line) | Attenuated cytotoxic effect of biaxial stretch damage, preserved neurite length, protected against neurite shrinkage and cell-death-maintained neurite length | Rachmany et al. [81] |
| Twincretin | SH-SY5Y cells | Increased levels of intermediates in the neurotrophic CREB pathway and enhanced viability of human neuroblastoma cells exposed to toxic concentrations of glutamate and hydrogen peroxide | Tamargo et al. [85] |
| In Vivo Studies | |||
| Sitagliptin | mTBI in mouse model | Increased manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) production and overall improved outcomes | DellaValle et al. [75] |
| Liraglutide | mTBI in chinchillas | Mitigated hearing loss and auditory damage | Jiang et al. [76] |
| Liraglutide | mTBI in mouse model | Improved memory function | Li et al. [77] |
| Exendin-4 | mTBI in mouse model | Fully ameliorated mTBI-induced deficits in novel object recognition | Rachmany et al. [81] |
| Exendin-4 | CCI in rats | Recovery of neurological and cognitive functions, improved cerebral blood flow, reduced both neural degeneration and inflammatory cytokine levels significantly diminished the TBI-induced overexpression of TNFα and IL-1β |
Zhang et al. [9] |
| Exenatide | mTBI in mouse model | Mitigation of short- and longer-term cognitive impairments (visual and spatial deficits) | Bader et al. [79] |
| Exendin-4 L-carnitine |
mTBI in rat model | Improved sensory and motor functions, improved memory, oxidative stress decrease ameliorated |
Chen et al. [80] |
| Exendin-4 | B-TBI in mouse model | Neurodegeneration and memory deficits | Tweedie et al. [83] |
| Exendin-4 | B-TBI in mouse model | Prevented cognitive deficits | Rachmany et al. [81] |
| Twincretin | mTBI in mouse model | Restored the visual and spatial memory deficits induced by mTBI | Tamargo et al. [85] |
Abbreviations: mTBI, mild traumatic brain injury; CCI, controlled cortical impact; B-TBI, blast traumatic brain injury.