Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of the 31 eligible studies included in the quantitative meta-analysis of schistosomiasis-microbiota interaction.

Schistosoma Species	Type of Bacteria Present	Country	Number of Participants	Males	Females	Methodology	Samples Used for Bacteria Isolation	Samples Used for Schistosoma Identification	Reference
S. haematobium	Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus saprophyticus Serratia, and Proteus	Nigeria	509	263	246	Microscopy, bacteria culture and Gram staining	Urine	Urine	[43]
S. haematobium	Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Moraxella spp., and Streptococcus	Senegal	17,107	Not stated	Not stated	Microscopy, bacteria culture, Gram staining, biochemical tests and antimicrobial susceptibility testing	Urine	Urine	[44]
S. haematobium	Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp.	Nigeria	443	Not stated	Not stated	Urine microscopy and bacteria culture	Urine	Urine	[45]
S. haematobium	Not stated	Nigeria	960	306	654	Sample culture, Gram staining and biochemical tests, urinalysis	Urine	Urine	[46]
S. haematobium	Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella species	Nigeria	842	416	426	Urine filtration and microscopy, urinalysis, urine culture	Urine	Urine	[47]
S. haematobium	Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Salmonella enterica, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Nigeria	109	35	74	Urine sedimentation and microscopy, urine culture, antimicrobial susceptibility testing	Urine	Urine	[48]
S. haematobium	Staphylococcus aureus, hemolytic Staphylococcus albus, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecelis, S. viridiens, S. haemolyticus, various strains of staphylococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.	Egypt	82	Not stated	Not stated	Urine filtration and microscopy, urine analysis, Urine culture, Gram staining, and biochemical tests.	Urine	Urine	[49]
S. haematobium	Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, and Proteus species.	Egypt	390	167	223	Urine culture, biochemical tests	Urine	Urine	[50]
S. haematobium	Escherichia sp., Klebsiella sp., Staphylococcus sp., and Salmonella typhi	Nigeria	656	370	286	Sedimentation and microscopy, urine culture, intradermal tests, flocculation tests and fluorescent antibody tests	Urine	Urine	[51]
S. japonicum	H. pylori	China	150	79	71	Kato Katz and microscopy, ELISA,	Blood	Stool	[52]
S. mansoni	Salmonella sp.	Democratic Republic of Congo	1108	504	554	Kato Katz and microscopy, stool and blood cultures, biochemical tests and antibiotic susceptibility testing	Stool	Stool	[53]
S. mansoni	Salmonella sp.	Ethiopia	271	165	106	Wet mount and stool concentration (formalin–ether concentration technique), Widal test, stool culture and biochemical tests and antimicrobial susceptibility test	Stool	Stool	[54]
S. haematobium	Citrobacter spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Acinetobacter spp., Providencia spp., Pseudomonas, Serratia	Nigeria	505	254	251	Sedimentation and microscopy, urine culture, biochemical tests	Urine and blood	Urine	[55]
S. haematobium	Salmonella enterica, serovar Paratyphi, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter aerogenes, Morganella morgani, Vibrio mirabilis, Escherichia coli, Neisseria species, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Corynebacterium xerosis, Bacillus cereus, Kurthia gibsoni, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mitis and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.	Nigeria	244	Not stated	Not stated	Sedimentation and microscopy, urinalysis, urine culture, biochemical tests, PCR, antibiotic susceptibility test	Urine	Urine	[56]
S. intercalatum	Salmonella spp.	Gabon	125	68	57	ELISA, Blood culture, antimicrobial susceptibility test, Rectal biopsy	Blood	Rectal biopsy	[57]
S. haematobium	Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae	Democratic Republic of Congo	367	0	367	Urine filtration and microscopy, nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT),	Vaginal swab	Urine	[58]
S. haematobium and S. mansoni	Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Tanzania	972	585	387	Baermann, FLOTAC, Kato–Katz, point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen urine cassette test, urine filtration, bacterial culture, AFB sputum smear using Ziehl–Nielsen methods and d Gene Xpert MTB/RIF	Sputum	Blood, stool and urine	[59]
S. haematobium	Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (No specific bacteria stated)	Zimbabwe	415	Not stated	Not stated	Hematuria check, clinical examination, Maglumi 4000 chemiluminescence immunoassay analyzer (CLIA) and urine filtration.	Not stated	Stool and urine	[60]
S. haematobium and S. mansoni	Lactobacillus, Gardnerella, Megasphaera, and Sneathia, Peptostreptococcus anaerobius, Prevotella timonesis	Tanzania	134	0	134	Microscopy and CAA, PCR and sequencing	Cervical swab	Stool and urine	[61]
S. haematobium	No Salmonella sp. isolated	Nigeria	306	118	188	Solid Rapid diagnostic test kit, urine sedimentation and microscopy	Blood (Serology)	Urine	[62]
S. mansoni	S. paratyphi B and S. typhi	Sudan	75	29	46	Kato–Katz, stool culture, gram staining, biochemical tests and Widal test	Stool	Stool	[63]
S. haematobium	Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (No specific bacteria stated)	Zimbabwe	235	129	108	Clinical examination, hematuria examination using Uristix reagent strips, urine filtration method, and microscopy	Not stated	Urine	[64]
S. haematobium and S. mansoni	Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Tanzania	655	386	269	Sputum culture and microscopy, Kato–Katz, membrane filtration and microscopy.	Sputum	Stool and urine	[65]
S. mansoni	Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Ethiopia	295	181	114	Sputum smear and microscopy, Kato–Katz technique, ELISA	Sputum	Stool	[66]
S. haematobium and S. mansoni	Salmonella spp.	Saudi Arabia	288	Not stated	Not stated	Clinical examination, Kato thick smear technique, centrifugation and microscopy, urine and stool culture, Gram staining and biochemical tests	Stool and urine	Stool and urine	[67]
S. mansoni	Mycobacterium leprae	Brazil	256	123	133	Kato–Katz and Hoffman–Pons–Janer methods	Skin slit	Blood and stool	[68]
S. haematobium and S. mansoni	Not stated	Kenya	345	0	345	Urine centrifugation and microscopy, Kato–Katz technique	Stool and urine	Stool and urine	[69]
S. haematobium	Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus species	Nigeria	280	120	160	Urinalysis, urine microscopy, urine culture, biochemical tests and Gram staining	Urine	Urine	[70]
S. haematobium	Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella species	Nigeria	1024	352	672	Urine culture, biochemical tests	Urine	Urine	[71]
S. haematobium	Bacterial vaginosis (No specific bacteria stated)	Ghana	385	Not stated	Not stated	Compressed biopsy technique	Vaginal swab and blood	Cervical biopsy	[72]
S. mansoni	H. pylori	Nigeria	151	Not stated	Not stated	Stool antigen test and conventional PCR assay, formol-ether concentration and nested PCR assay	Stool	Stool	[73]