Table 3.

A summary of the various techniques, their principles, required samples, advantages, and disadvantages, along with their sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing schistosomiasis.

Technique	Principle	Type of Sample Analyzed	Advantages	Disadvantages	Field or Laboratory Use	Sensitivity	Specificity	References
Microscopic (conventional)	Direct observation of parasite eggs	Stool (S), urine (U)	Inexpensive, requires minimal equipment	Time-consuming, low sensitivity for early/minute infections	Laboratory (Lab)	Low (L) (especially in early stages)	High (H) (when parasite eggs are present)	[71]
PCR	Amplifies and detects parasite DNA	Blood (B), U, S,	Highly sensitive, can detect low levels of parasite DNA	Expensive, requires technical expertise	Lab	H	H	[73]
LAMP	Amplifies parasite DNA using isothermal conditions	B, U, S	Rapid, does not require a thermal cycler	Requires trained personnel, potential false positives	Both	H	H	[74]
RPA	Amplifies parasite DNA	B, U, S	Fast, field-deployable, does not require complex instruments	Moderate cost, less validation in field conditions	Both	H	H	[75]
Rapid diagnostic test	Detects antibodies or antigens using immunochromatography	B, U	Simple, rapid, field-deployable	Limited sensitivity and specificity in early infection stages	Field	M	M
Lateral flow assay	Detects antigens using antibody-labeled particles	B, U	Simple, rapid, portable, field-friendly	Limited sensitivity and specificity	Field	M	M	[76]
Smartphone-based devices	Uses smartphone technology to analyze results from lateral flow assays	B, U	Portable, easy to use, field-deployable	Limited validation and availability	Field	M to H (depends on device)	M	[76]
ELISA	Detects host immune response proteins (antibodies, cytokines, etc.)	B	Can assess host immune response, widely used	Requires laboratory setup, moderate sensitivity	Lab	M	M	[77]
Mass spectroscopy	Detects specific proteins or biomarkers	B, tissue (T)	Highly sensitive, can identify proteins	Expensive, requires complex instruments	Lab	H	H	[78]
Proteomic techniques	Detects schistosome proteins (e.g., SjTs4, MF3, SjPGM, SjRAD23)	B, U	Can differentiate between current and past infections	Expensive, requires high technical expertise	Lab	H	H	[3]
MicroRNA detection	Detects schistosomes-specific microRNAs	B, U, S	High sensitivity	Expensive, requires field validation	Lab	H	H	[72]

Note: Lab—laboratory; H—high; M—moderate; L—low.