Table 7.

Various technologies applied for the manufacturing of anti-schistosomal vaccines.

Techniques Used for the Identification of Vaccine Targets	Examples of Methods Applied	References
Gene editing	CRISPR/Cas-9	[171]
Transcriptomics and DNA microarray profiling	RNA sequencing, next-generation sequencing	[172]
Proteomics	Reverse vaccinology approach, proteasomal cleavage and TAP transport prediction, epitope prediction, 3D structure prediction and refinement	[173]
Exosomics	-	[136,168]
Immunomics	ELISPOT, immunomic microarray, mapping tools for the epitopes of T and B cells	[174]
Immunoinformatics	Multi-epitope peptide-based, transmembrane proteins as a target	[173]
Gene suppression	iRNA, vector-based silencing, lentiviral transduction	[175]
Techniques used in vaccine delivery	Antibody and chromatography-based techniques
DNA-based vaccines	SjCPTI, Smp80	[175]
Irradiated cercarial vaccine	Culturing of cercariae, followed by irradiation	[176]
Synthetic multiple epitope peptides	Sm14	[177]
Epitope based vaccine	Transmembrane proteins, codon optimization for E. coli to ensure heterologous expression and antigen purification, alongside stability and solubility prediction	[173]
Recombinant protein vaccines or bivalent vaccines	Smp80, Sm97, Sm14 (paramyosin), Sm-TSP-2, Sm14/Sm29, Sm14/Sm-TSP2/Sm29/Smp80	[178]
New adjuvants	R848, TLR7/8 agonist, CpG-ODN, QuilA, GLA-SE, alum, poly (I: C)	[175]