Table 2.

Bioactive scaffolds with programmable properties for bone repair.

Materials	Key Features	Applications	Ref.
Biomimetic Hydroxyapatite/Shape Memory Composite Scaffold	Programmable pore structure, adjustable mechanical properties, shape memory, hydrophilicity	Bone regeneration, adaptable scaffolds	[100]
Magnetic Chitosan Microscaffold	Magnetic responsiveness, biocompatibility, biodegradability, enhanced cell adhesion	Knee cartilage regeneration, micro/nanorobots	[101]
Injectable Hydrogel Systems	Supports cell viability, differentiation, angiogenesis, bioactive molecule release, native ECM mimicry	Bone tissue engineering, osteoblast promotion	[102,103]
Dual-Network Composite Hydrogel	Viscoelastic properties, stress relaxation, biodegradable, ROS and glucose-responsive	Diabetic bone regeneration, tissue repair	[104,105]
3D-Printed Dual-Drug Biomimetic Scaffold	NIR light-responsive, on-demand drug release (SIM, PGL), promotes osteogenesis and stem cell migration	Bone regeneration, rabbit skull defect model	[106]
Shape Memory Polyurethane Scaffold	NIR light response, shape recovery, Mg ion release for osteogenesis, strong mechanical properties	Bone repair, minimally invasive applications	[107]
Composite SMP Scaffold with Hydroxyapatite	Shape memory, enhanced mechanical properties, promotes bone-like mineralization and tissue repair	Minimally invasive bone repair	[108]
Silk Fibroin (SF) Cartilage Repair Scaffold	Sequential release of TGF-β1 and E7, BMSC recruitment	Cartilage regeneration	[12]
PCL-Based Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffold	Programmable release of aprotinin and Tβ4, reduces inflammation, promotes ECM reconstruction	ECM remodeling, tissue engineering	[109]
Alginate/Calcium Phosphate Scaffold	Sequential release of PDGF and BMP-2, promotes osteoblast differentiation, cellular infiltration	Bone regeneration, stem cell differentiation	[110]
Biodegradable Polyurethane Scaffold with HA	Shape memory, tunable porosity, HA integration for osteoconductivity, in vivo biocompatibility	Bone defect implantation, bone repair	[114]
NIR-Responsive PLMC Scaffold with PDA	Shape recovery under NIR, self-fitting for irregular defects, enhanced osteogenesis, minimally invasive	Bone regeneration, cranial bone defects	[115]
ZnSr.TCP-SF Scaffold	Bone-mimicking architecture, tunable pore size, enhanced scaffold integrity and bone regeneration potential	Osteoregeneration, in vitro bone modeling	[116]
Functionally Graded TPMS Scaffold	Programmable pore size, tailored mechanical properties, smooth interconnectivity, bone-mimicking structure	Bone scaffolds, tissue engineering	[117]