Table 2.
Contribution of UPF, UPF sub-groups and whole milk to total energy intake (mean ± SD) for complete sample and by quintile of UPF intake in toddlerhood (21 months) and mid-childhood (7 years)
| Age | Total | Quintile of % of energy from UPF | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (21 m: n = 2,591 7y: n = 592) |
Q1 (21 m: n = 518 7y: n = 118) |
Q2 (21 m: n = 519 7y: n = 119) |
Q3 (21 m: n = 518 7y: n = 118) |
Q4 (21 m: n = 517 7y: n = 119) |
Q5 (21 m: n = 519 7y: n = 118) |
||
| UPF (% energy) | 21 m | 46.9 ± 14.7 | 27.9 ± 5.6 | 38.2 ± 2.0 | 45.6 ± 2.1 | 53.9 ± 2.9 | 69.0 ± 7.4 |
| 7y | 59.4 ± 12.5 | 40.9 ± 7.9 | 54.3 ± 1.8 | 59.7 ± 1.6 | 66.2 ± 2.0 | 75.7 ± 4.7 | |
| Sub-group of UPF a | |||||||
| Higher fiber breakfast cereals | 21 m | 4.2 ± 3.9 | 3.4 ± 3.2 | 4.8 ± 4.1 | 4.6 ± 4.0 | 4.0 ± 3.8 | 4.1 ± 4.2 |
| 7y | 3.4 ± 4.0 | 2.6 ± 3.0 | 3.9 ± 4.2 | 4.0 ± 4.2 | 3.6 ± 4.5 | 2.9 ± 3.8 | |
| Lower fiber breakfast cereals | 21mb | 0.9 ± 1.9 | 0.6 ± 1.4 | 0.7 ± 1.5 | 0.9 ± 1.8 | 1.3 ± 2.3 | 1.2 ± 2.3 |
| 7yb | 2.1 ± 3.1 | 1.3 ± 2.1 | 2.0 ± 2.9 | 2.2 ± 3.6 | 2.5 ± 3.5 | 2.6 ± 3.2 | |
| Wholegrain breads | 21 m | 3.9 ± 4.3 | 3.6 ± 3.5 | 4.2 ± 3.0 | 4.0 ± 4.1 | 4.0 ± 4.6 | 4.0 ± 5.4 |
| 7y | 4.9 ± 5.1 | 5.4 ± 5.1 | 5.1 ± 5.1 | 4.8 ± 4.5 | 5.0 ± 5.0 | 4.1 ± 5.5 | |
| White breads | 21mb | 3.7 ± 4.4 | 2.2 ± 3.1 | 2.9 ± 3.5 | 3.7 ± 4.2 | 4.8 ± 4.9 | 5.0 ± 5.2 |
| 7y | 6.5 ± 5.6 | 5.2 ± 4.7 | 6.6 ± 5.9 | 6.6 ± 5.9 | 6.3 ± 5.2 | 7.6 ± 5.8 | |
| Flavoured yogurts | 21mb | 4.5 ± 3.7 | 3.2 ± 3.1 | 4.3 ± 3.2 | 4.6 ± 3.4 | 5.1 ± 3.6 | 5.2 ± 4.5 |
| 7y | 2.4 ± 2.8 | 1.5 ± 2.3 | 2.5 ± 2.8 | 2.6 ± 2.7 | 2.8 ± 2.8 | 2.6 ± 3.1 | |
| Commercial Milk Formula | 21mb | 2.8 ± 7.9 | 0.3 ± 2.0 | 0.5 ± 2.5 | 1.1 ± 4.6 | 2.8 ± 7.1 | 9.2 ± 13.2 |
| 7y | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
| Infant foods and drinks | 21 m | 1.9 ± 3.6 | 1.9 ± 3.2 | 1.9 ± 3.0 | 1.7 ± 3.3 | 1.8 ± 3.5 | 2.1 ± 4.8 |
| 7y | 0.1 ± 0.6 | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.04 ± 0.3 | 0.1 ± 0.6 | 0.1 ± 0.9 | 0.1 ± 0.5 | |
| Puddings and sweet cereal products | 21mb | 3.1 ± 4.3 | 1.5 ± 2.7 | 2.6 ± 3.4 | 3.7 ± 4.6 | 3.8 ± 4.6 | 3.7 ± 5.0 |
| 7yb | 6.6 ± 6.2 | 4.2 ± 4.7 | 5.3 ± 5.4 | 5.8 ± 5.7 | 7.9 ± 5.8 | 9.7 ± 7.6 | |
| Ice cream, dairy desserts and ice lollies | 21mb | 1.0 ± 2.2 | 0.5 ± 1.4 | 0.7 ± 1.6 | 1.1 ± 2.1 | 1.2 ± 2.3 | 1.6 ± 3.0 |
| 7yb | 3.0 ± 3.4 | 1.7 ± 2.7 | 3.1 ± 3.4 | 3.0 ± 3.3 | 3.8 ± 3.4 | 3.4 ± 3.7 | |
| Biscuits | 21mb | 2.8 ± 3.7 | 1.5 ± 2.3 | 2.1 ± 2.5 | 2.7 ± 3.2 | 3.2 ± 3.4 | 4.7 ± 5.3 |
| 7yb | 3.9 ± 4.0 | 2.2 ± 3.0 | 3.0 ± 3.8 | 4.0 ± 3.6 | 4.9 ± 4.1 | 5.3 ± 4.5 | |
| Confectionery | 21mb | 1.5 ± 2.7 | 0.5 ± 1.2 | 1.0 ± 2.2 | 1.5 ± 2.5 | 1.9 ± 2.7 | 2.4 ± 3.6 |
| 7yb | 4.0 ± 4.1 | 2.9 ± 3.3 | 3.3 ± 3.8 | 4.3 ± 4.5 | 4.5 ± 3.8 | 4.8 ± 4.7 | |
| Sweet spreads | 21mb | 0.5 ± 1.2 | 0.3 ± 0.7 | 0.4 ± 0.8 | 0.5 ± 1.2 | 0.6 ± 1.3 | 0.7 ± 1.8 |
| 7y | 1.1 ± 1.8 | 0.7 ± 1.1 | 0.9 ± 1.7 | 0.9 ± 1.3 | 1.4 ± 2.3 | 1.4 ± 2.3 | |
| Savoury snacks | 21mb | 2.1 ± 2.8 | 1.1 ± 1.7 | 1.4 ± 1.9 | 2.2 ± 2.8 | 2.6 ± 2.9 | 3.4 ± 3.7 |
| 7yb | 3.2 ± 3.3 | 2.1 ± 2.7 | 3.0 ± 2.8 | 2.8 ± 3.1 | 3.4 ± 3.5 | 4.5 ± 3.8 | |
| Processed meat | 21mb | 1.7 ± 2.7 | 0.9 ± 1.6 | 1.2 ± 1.9 | 1.8 ± 2.6 | 1.9 ± 2.8 | 2.5 ± 3.7 |
| 7yb | 3.2 ± 3.4 | 2.3 ± 2.8 | 2.6 ± 3.1 | 3.3 ± 3.4 | 3.6 ± 3.8 | 4.4 ± 3.7 | |
| Poultry products & dishes | 21mb | 0.7 ± 2.0 | 0.1 ± 0.8 | 0.3 ± 1.1 | 0.5 ± 1.5 | 1.0 ± 2.1 | 1.4 ± 3.2 |
| 7yb | 1.2 ± 2.7 | 0.3 ± 1.2 | 1.0 ± 2.2 | 1.2 ± 2.4 | 1.7 ± 3.8 | 1.7 ± 3.0 | |
| Fish & fish dishes | 21mb | 1.3 ± 2.2 | 0.8 ± 1.6 | 1.3 ± 2.1 | 1.2 ± 2.1 | 1.7 ± 2.3 | 1.8 ± 2.6 |
| 7y | 1.4 ± 2.4 | 0.9 ± 2.1 | 1.1 ± 2.0 | 1.4 ± 2.0 | 1.6 ± 2.2 | 2.2 ± 3.4 | |
| Potato products, e.g. fries, wedges, instant mash | 21mb | 1.2 ± 2.3 | 0.5 ± 1.4 | 0.6 ± 1.4 | 1.0 ± 2.1 | 1.4 ± 2.2 | 2.5 ± 3.5 |
| 7yb | 2.1 ± 2.9 | 0.7 ± 1.6 | 1.5 ± 2.4 | 1.9 ± 25 | 2.6 ± 3.1 | 3.8 ± 3.7 | |
| Savoury pastry dishes | 21mb | 0.7 ± 2.4 | 0.3 ± 1.3 | 0.6 ± 1.8 | 0.6 ± 1.7 | 0.7 ± 1.8 | 1.5 ± 4.1 |
| 7y | 1.3 ± 2.8 | 0.6 ± 1.5 | 1.3 ± 3.2 | 1.3 ± 2.7 | 1.3 ± 3.0 | 1.9 ± 3.1 | |
| Pizza | 21mb | 0.6 ± 2.3 | 0.3 ± 1.2 | 0.5 ± 1.9 | 0.5 ± 2.0 | 0.9 ± 2.9 | 1.0 ± 3.1 |
| 7yb | 1.8 ± 3.8 | 0.5 ± 2.0 | 0.9 ± 2.4 | 1.6 ± 3.8 | 2.1 ± 4.0 | 3.7 ± 5.3 | |
| Spreadable fats | 21mb | 1.9 ± 2.4 | 0.9 ± 1.4 | 1.5 ± 1.9 | 2.1 ± 2.4 | 2.6 ± 2.7 | 2.7 ± 3.0 |
| 7y | 1.6 ± 2.0 | 1.0 ± 1.6 | 1.5 ± 2.0 | 1.9 ± 2.1 | 1.7 ± 2.0 | 1.8 ± 2.0 | |
| Whole milk | 21mc | 21.3 ± 12.5 | 29.1 ± 12.2 | 26.3 ± 10.7 | 23.6 ± 9.9 | 18.5 ± 9.9 | 9.2 ± 8.6 |
| 7y | 2.5 ± 5.4 | 4.1 ± 7.2 | 2.7 ± 5.6 | 2.8 ± 5.9 | 1.4 ± 3.1 | 1.6 ± 3.9 | |
m, months; Q, quintile; UPF, ultra-processed food; y, years
aUPF sub-groups contributing > 1% energy included, therefore sum of sub-groups does not yield the value of UPF contribution
bPositive linear association (Complex Samples General Linear Models) between % energy from UPF (continuous) and % energy from UPF sub-group (continuous), P < 0.001
cNegative linear association (Complex Samples General Linear Models) between % energy from UPF (continuous) and % energy from UPF sub-group (continuous), P < 0.001